Lecture Notes/Chapter Outine Chapter 16: Older Adulthood Physical & Cognitive Development

Chapter 16: Older Adulthood Physical & Cognitive Development

I. Aging Today
A. Ageism and stereotypes
1. AGEISM – the widely prevalent negative attitudes which many people hold of older adults, that overvalues youth and degrades older people
2. The error of generalizing from the few to the many
a. In the U.S. people still use ageist stereotypes
b. Some of these images may reflect the cohort that makes up elderly people today
c. The context in which we hear about the elderly is often negative
d. Older people are often seen as both wise and senile, kind and grouchy, concerned for others and inactive and unsociable
3. A sociocultural perspective
a. FILIAL PIETY – the veneration given to the elderly in Asian cultures and other cultures, which is manifested in cultural traditions, as well as in everyday encounters
b. Some cultures view their elderly as wise and hold them in high reverence
c. The median age of people in the US is 35.4 and growing
B. Four decades of later life
1. Young-old: ages 60-69
a. This stage is accompanied by a major transition in roles
b. Income is often reduced by retirement or reduced hours or work
c. Retirement is the key developmental transition
d. Expectations of people in their 60s is greatly reduced
2. Middle-aged-old: ages 70-79
a. SEPTUAGENARIANS – people in their 70s
b. This stage is often characterized by significant illness and loss
c. Increasingly larger proportions of adults in their 70s are maintaining good health
3. Old-old: ages 80-89
a. OCTOGENARIANS – people in their 80s
b. Most people in the age group are frail but not necessarily disabled or totally dependent on others
c. This group makes up the fastest growing group in the U.S. population
4. Very old-old: ages 90 and over
a. NONAGENARIANS – people in their 90s
b. Changes that shape life for people in their 90s are slow and gradual
c. They only experience minimal cognitive decline and could be healthier and more agile than people 20 years younger
5. Aging in perspective
a. Older adults are not a cohesive group but, rather, are a collection of subgroups
b. Each person experiences older adulthood in a different way
II. The Physical Aspects of Aging
A. PATHOLOGICAL AGING FACTORS – the cumulative effects that result from earlier events and lifestyle choices – accidents, previous illnesses, or bad health habits – that may accelerate aging
B. The changing body
1. Appearance
a. Gray or thinning hair
b. Shift in posture
c. Deepening wrinkles
2. Muscles, bones, and mobility
a. Weaker, shorter, and less able to maintain balance
b. Strength and endurance decrease
c. This decline can be delayed by high intensity exercise training
d. Osteoporosis can contribute to problems with mobility
3. Internal organs
a. Reduced functioning of most internal organs
b. The heart, like other muscles decreases in strength and efficiency
c. Reserve capacity of the heart, lungs and other organs decreases
4. Sleep problems
a. Insomnia – inability to sleep
b. Sleep apnea – repeated waking due to interruption or pauses in breathing
c. usually can be treated with medication or change in habits
5. The senses
a. All senses generally become less efficient as we age
b. Taste is least affected
c. HYPERTENSION – abnormally high blood pressure, sometimes accompanied by headaches and dizziness
d. CATARACT – the clouding of the lens of the eye that obstructs light and thereby limits vision
e. GLAUCOMA – an increase of pressure within the eyeball that can result in damage and the gradual loss of vision
f. VISUAL ACUITY – the ability to distinguish fine detail

6. brain and nervous system
a. DEMENTIA – a disorder associated with older age that includes a broad array of cognitive deficiencies, such as impaired learning and memory ability, a deterioration of language and motor functions, a progressive inability to recognize familiar people and objects, frequent confusion, and personality changes
b. Reaction times are slower; words and names are harder to remember
c. Shrinkage of the frontal cortex, which controls higher cognitive functions, occurs
d. Fewer connections among neurons appears to cause decreased brain weight
C. Health, disease, and nutrition
1. Chronic health problems
a. Chronic diseases are those that are lasting or recurring
b. The most common is hypertension
c. Visual and hearing impairments and the aftereffects of falls are also problematic for a large percentage of adults
d. These problems largely reflect the body’s decreased ability to cope with stress
e. Sociocultural factors also play a part
f. ATHEROSCLEROSIS – hardening of the arteries, which is a common condition of aging caused by the body’s increasing inability to use excess fats in the diet; responsible for many of the heart conditions prevalent among older people; these fats are stored along the walls of arteries where they restrict flow of blood when they harden
g. Dietary deficiencies in old age are often remedied by vitamin supplements
2. The misuse of prescribed medication
a. Abuse relates to the abundance of medications that are prescribed to the elderly
b. They may forget which medications they have taken or how much to take
c. They may fail to report all the medications they are taking to their physicians
d. Their body chemistry may shift and the action of the drugs may change
III. The Causes of Aging
A. SENESCENCE – the normal aging process, not connected with the occurrence of disease in an individual; refers to the universal biological process of aging

B. Theories of Aging
1. Stochastic theories
a. STOCHASTIC THEORIES OF AGING – theories suggesting that the body ages as a result of random assaults from both internal and external environments
b. Also called wear and tear theories
c. Free radicals that are left over from cellular process react with other chemical compounds and this interrupts normal cell functions causing damage
d. Toxins build up over time and could cause cellular damge
e. Age inhibits the repair mechanisms that counterbalance the damage
2. biological clock theories
a. BIOLOGICAL CLOCK THEORIES OF AGING – theories suggesting that genetic programming determines the pace and process of aging
b. Telomeres become shorter with cell division and there is not enough telomere left eventually and the cell will fail to reproduce and then die
c. A hormone starts a process of cellular decline at a programmed rate
IV. Cognitive Changes in Advanced Age
A. Understanding various aspects of cognition
1. Speed of cognition
a. Slower reaction times, slower perceptual processing, and slower cognitive process in general
b. Attributable to the neurological changes associated with aging
c. Also due to the different strategies that older people use
d. Compensation for the loss of speed usually occurs
2. Memory
a. sensory memory and short term memory decline slightly or not at all
b. working memory declines but more effective strategies can limit the effects
c. episodic long term memory declines but may be due to slower processing speed
d. semantic long term memory shows minimal decline
3. Wisdom
a. WISDOM – an expert knowledge system that focuses on the practicalities of life and that involves excellent judgment and advice on critical life issues, including the meaning of life and the human condition; wisdom represents the capstone of human intelligence
b. Wisdom is assessed by posing dilemmas and evaluating how a person’s responses approach the 5 criteria of wisdom related knowledge
i. Factual knowledge
ii. Procedural knowledge
iii. Life span contextualism
iv. Value relativism
v. Recognition and management of uncertainty
B. Cognitive decline
1. Dementia
a. Chronic confusion, forgetfulness, and accompanying personality changes
b. Unable to cope with routine tasks
c. Not simply an aspect of growing old, it results from specific causes
2. General causes of cognitive decline
a. Poor health
b. Non-stimulating environment
3. Specific causes of cognitive decline
a. STROKE – blockage of blood to a region in the brain, which can cause brain damage
b. atherosclerosis
c. ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE – a disease that causes dementia due to a progressive deterioration of brain cells, especially those in the cerebral cortex
i. Memory impairment
ii. Language disturbance
iii. Motor impairment
iv. Inability to recognize objects or people
v. Impairment in executive functions
vi. Gradual and continuous onset
vii. Cause is not known
C. Compensating for an aging mind
1. Reorganize and adjust their sense of self in response to the changes in mental abilities
2. Sustained overall activity is linked to the ability to compensate
3. Select fewer tasks
4. Devote more attention to the tasks
5. Optimize their outcomes

Lecture Notes/Outine: Chapter 17: Older Adulthood Personality & Sociocultural Development

Chapter 17: older Adulthood Personality & Sociocultural Development

I. Personality and Aging
A. STATUS PASSAGES – the changes in role and social position that occurs when a person enters adolescence, becomes a parent, retires, or becomes a widow or widower

B. Developmental tasks in older adulthood
1. Erikson’s stage of integrity versus despair
a. INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR – according to Erikson, the final developmental task in the lifespan when people think about how their lives have fulfilled their earlier expectations
b. Part of the adjustment to older adulthood includes the need to reminisce and reflect on past events
c. Older adults may still have regrets, but satisfactory resolution involves accepting that not everything in life has worked out as ideal, yet life has been of value

2. Maintaining identity
a. Identity is a clear and consistent view of the physical, psychological, and social attributes of one’s self
b. Assimilation of changing circumstances and accommodating one’s self when major life events cannot be assimilated
c. Ideally a balance between assimilation and accommodation occurs
d. Maintaining consistency in personal identity is key for many of the very old

C. Emotional development in older adulthood
1. This life stage is usually experienced as one of continued emotional growth
2. Satisfaction with their interpersonal relationships occurs
3. Awareness of the fragility of human life leads to greater investments in emotionally close relationships
4. Positive emotions occur at the same rate, but negative emotions surface less frequently
5. Sense of time is fleeting and usually deepens and can cause sadness


D. Continuity and change in older adulthood
1. Continuity and change in personality
a. Personality is largely established by early adulthood, but some minor changes occur
b. Have higher self esteem and more life satisfaction
c. Well being has been conceptualized as being comprised of six components
d. Each of these components can increase or decrease as adults grow older
e. They are self acceptance, positive relations with other people, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, personal growth

2. Coping styles
a. Coping styles appear to become increasingly mature as we grow older
b. Found to be more passive and focused on emotions instead of active and focusing on specific problems
c. MAGIC MASTERY – a coping style of very old men that is characterized by dealing with reality through projection and distortion
d. PARENTAL IMPERATIVE – the traditional social pressures for women to conform to nurturing roles and for men to be financially responsible and to suppress any traits that conflict with that role. The parental imperative usually relaxes when children are launched

E. Successful aging
1. Social comparison plays a crucial role
2. Older adults who compare their situations to those of other older people modify their perspectives accordingly
3. Health is not the only factor, money, social class, marital status, adequacy of housing, and amount of social interaction also play an influence on satisfaction
4. Successful aging involves maintaining physical and cognitive functioning and being engaged in social and productive activities





II. Retirement: A Major Change in Status
A. Adjusting to retirement
1. Attitude toward work is an important influence on how a person experiences retirement
2. If they are very devoted to work, leisure activities may seem superficial and lack meaning
3. Economic status is another major factor
4. Women are often more likely to be poor
5. This could possibly be due to lower wages during working time
6. Health also plays a role in satisfaction with the transition to retirement

B. Retirement options
1. Older adults often prefer to continue working, but for fewer hours
2. Increases in social security benefits, retirement funds, and pensions are partially responsible for delayed retirement and early retirement
3. Income, a place to live, adequate savings, and plans for further work, are specific factors considered before retirement
4. RETIREMENT MATURITY – a measure of how well prepared a person is to retire

III. Family and Friends: Interpersonal Contexts
A. When parenting is over
1. When children leave, relationships change
2. Decreased stress and increased feelings of satisfaction occur
3. Couples with marriage as the emotional center of their lives are generally among the most satisfied
4. Relationships with children and grandchildren
a. Most adults report having relatively frequent contact with their children and grandchildren
b. Grandparenthood is often seen as one of the most satisfying roles of older adulthood
c. Kinship patterns have undergone change
d. Divorce and remarriage have made family grand-parenting more complex, but grandparents have an important role in maintaining stability during disruption




B. Caring for an ill spouse
1. When illness is temporary it is relatively easy to make short term adjustments
2. When an illness is terminal, care giving can consume the caregiver’s life
3. Despite stresses and strains, caregivers often report gratification from providing care for a person who means so much to them

C. Widows and widowers
1. Living arrangements
a. Women are less likely than men to remarry
b. Women tend to survive their spouses
c. Living alone involves many practical and psychological challenges
d. The prospect of being alone causes loneliness, and therefore many of these people seek out companionship from friends and family members

2. Social support
a. Widowers are less active in social organizations
b. Widows have an easier time maintaining a social life
c. Typically depend heavily on their children
d. Having the children become more involved can cause problems
e. Siblings also contribute to helping an older adult adjust to he loss of their spouse
f. Friendships can provide similar support, but older adults do not feel they can make the same demands on friends as family

IV. U.S. Social Policy and Older Adulthood
A. The demographics of aging
1. SOCIAL SECURITY – a U.S. government pension program of forced savings through payroll deductions from working adults’ income and corporate contributions, with money disbursed to the adults after they reach a certain minimum age, usually at retirement

2. MEDICARE – a U.S. government program subsidized by taxes that provides payment for many basic health care services and drugs needed by older adults
3. SS provides the largest proportions of retirement income for older adults
4. SS and Medicare are just 2 programs
5. Another problem that needs to be addressed is public housing does not accommodate the requirements of older adults

B. Lifestyle options for older adults
1. Nursing homes
a. Placement can be temporary or long term
b. The care received can vary widely in quality
c. People often experience anxiety and dread before entering a nursing home
d. Children often feel guilty
e. Loss of independence, identity, and control over daily routine can lead to apathy, passivity, bitterness, or depression
f. Assisted living centers are growing in popularity – older adults live in their own apartments but also receive some support in meeting their daily needs

2. Day care centers for older adults
a. For families who care for their older relative in the evening and at night
b. Day care centers allow the family to maintain a normal work schedule
c. They also provide a stimulating and agreeable environment for older adults
d. Usually the cost is not covered by health insurance

3. Other options
a. Retirement communities allow adults to maintain their own home, while living in communities comprised of other older residents
b. Community services can sometimes allow people to stay in their own homes and still get some limited support

C. Goals for the care of older adults
1. Older adults are a varied group
2. Gray Panthers and the AARP are giving older adults a better self image
3. Older adults do not imply a larger or unfair burden on the rest of society