Chap. 15 Middle Adulthood: Personality & Socio-Cultural Development
I. Personality Continuity and Change
A. The tasks of middle adulthood
1. The stage of middle adulthood is defined as much by tasks as it is by age
2. Friendships are established with people who are in the same stage even though they may not be the same age
3. Erikson
a. GENERATIVITY VERSUS SELF ABSORPTION – for Erikson, the overarching task of middle age where adults develop either the feeling that they have contributed in worthwhile ways or that their lives have not been worthwhile
b. People act within three domains
i. Procreative – giving and responding to the needs of their children
ii. Productive – integrating work with family life or by caring for the next generation
iii. Creative – contributing to society on a larger scale
c. When a sense of generativity fails to develop, stagnation and boredom are often the result
4. Extending Erikson’s view
a. Peck argued that Erikson’s eight stages placed too much emphasis on earlier stages of life
b. Peck developed new ideas about the conflicts that each person goes through
c. His ideas were focused on middle and older adulthood
B. Personal reactions to middle adulthood
1. Men’s reactions
a. Men have developed routines that allow them to successfully cope with problems
b. Men now realize that family relations are important and they don’t focus on their job roles
c. They have to cope with the idea that they may have not lived up to the standard that they wanted to
2. Women’s reactions
a. The types of adjustment women experience depends on the roles they adopt
b. The timing of key life events also defines their status, lifestyle, and options at middle adulthood
c. ROLE STRAIN – an overload of demands within a given role, such as being a mother or father
3. Goals and choices
a. Reassessment of priorities occurs and they reflect on whether their original goals have been met
b. Finding a way to contribute to other people allows a healthy adjustment
II. Family and Friends: Interpersonal Contexts
A. The generation that runs things
1. This new responsibility means people have to view their lives in a realistic focus
2. They must live in the present
3. KINKEEPER – the role assumed by middle aged people that includes maintaining family rituals, celebrating achievements, keeping family histories alive, reaching out to family members who are far away, and gathering the family together for holiday celebrations – all of which helps keep the family close
B. Relationships with adult children
1. Launching of adolescents and young adults
a. LAUNCHING OF ADOLESCENTS – parents letting go of older adolescent children so that they can assume responsible adult roles
b. Some families are better at letting go than others
c. Parents must learn to accept who their children are
d. This can sometimes violate parents’ expectations and lower their satisfaction, thus straining the relationship
e. It is often harder for single parents
2. Empty nest
a. EMPTY NEST – the period in the family life cycle that occurs after the last child has left home
b. This stage can be difficult if the partners have grown apart over the years
c. They still rely on each other for emotional support
d. Marital satisfaction is not based on the same things as earlier phases of the family phases
3. Mutually reciprocal relationships
a. As children reach adulthood they establish a reciprocal relationship with their parents
b. Children need to distance themselves to see their parents in a realistically; this can hurt parents
C. Relationships with aging parents
1. The reciprocal exchange of assistance
a. Data have revealed lasting social, emotional, and material exchanges between adult children and their parents
b. How children behave toward their parents depends on their stage in the family life cycle, life expectancy, gender, ethnicity, social class, and family history
2. Role reversals
a. Middle aged adults become the generation in charge
b. Their parents may be in poor health, retired, or in need of financial aid
c. Resentment can occur on both sides if realization that this role reversal is common and inevitable
3. caring for elderly parents
a. Most people think that care of the elderly is relegated to nursing homes, but only about 10% of caregivers use formal services
b. Middle aged caregivers hold the responsibility of parent care
c. This can create tension between the child and parent
d. Daughters are more likely than male family members to care for aging parents
D. Becoming a grandparent
1. Majority of people in the U.S. become grandparents during middle age
2. Grandparents can help raise a new generation without the daily responsibilities of being a parent
3. Grandparents are no longer the old person in a rocking chair, but are involved family members
4. Important roles of grandparents include:
a. Being there – they can be a calming presence in the face of disruption
b. Family national guard – actively managing the grandchildren in times of emergency
c. Arbitrator – imparting and negotiating family values, maintaining family continuity, and assisting in times of conflict
d. Maintaining the family’s biography – teaching grandchildren about the heritage and traditions of the family
E. Friendship: a lifelong perspective
1. Friends can serve as a central part of the lives of people who do not marry or have children by providing intimacy
2. Most complex friendships occurred in the late middle aged group
3. People at this stage are likely to appreciate the unique characteristics of their friends
4. Sex differences are also apparent since women are more deeply involved with friends and consider reciprocity to be their most important dimension
III. The Changing Family
A. Divorce and remarriage
1. Why couples divorce
a. When people at any stage of life want more from their marriage, divorce appears preferable to an unhappy relationship
b. Usually a gradual process of emotional distancing
c. Women are usually the initiators of divorce
2. Coping with life after divorce
a. Financial hardship affects both men and women
b. Women must enter the workforce if they were not already working
c. Men may need to work longer hours
d. Grief and mourning over the loss of an intimate relationship occurs
e. Disruption of normal routines also occurs
f. If it occurs in middle adulthood they may have to do things that were considered more appropriate for people in early adulthood like dating, going back to school or finding a new job
3. Starting a new life
a. May feel like they have a new chance at life after divorce
b. May have problems relinquishing their previous roles
c. May be unready to manage financial and legal matters
d. Within 2 or 3 years many individuals experience considerable improvement in well being
e. Men are 3 times as likely to remarry
4. Marriages that succeed
a. Both males and females list “my spouse is my best friend” as the primary reason for happiness
b. They are usually satisfied with their sex lives though it is not a primary factor
c. Marriage helps older people deal with stressful life events
B. RECONSTITUTED / BLENDED FAMILY – a family in which partners with children have remarried or formed a cohabiting relationship; also called a step family
1. Reconstituted families in perspective
a. Now a result of marriage-divorce-remarriage instead of marriage-death-remarriage
b. Contact with the former spouse can make it difficult to maintain appropriate distance between the parents
c. Characterized by more open communication and greater acceptance of conflict
2. Learning to live in a reconstituted family
a. Most parents list discipline as the greatest difficulty in being a stepparent
b. The stereotype of the stepchild as being neglected is widespread, but inaccurate
c. Taking time to develop mutual trust, affection, and closeness to the child helps form a workable relationship
d. Stepparents who try to compete with the stepchild’s biological parent are more likely to fail
IV. Occupational Continuity and Change
A. Job change and stress
1. It is difficult to find another job with comparable pay and benefits
2. Career changes are not welcome and may not go smoothly
3. This can increase stress and conflict both at home and on the job
B. Job loss
1. People who are forced to leave their job experience problems that may outweigh the loss of income
2. Emotional responses include anger, protest, bargaining, and depression
3. More difficult for middle aged adults
4. Those who cope best take loss in stride and don’t turn their anger inward
C. JOB BURNOUT – the emotional exhaustion that often affects people in high stress professions and trades
1. People in helping professions who experience job burnout are generally idealistic, highly motivated, extremely competent workers who realize they can’t make the difference they wanted to
2. General cause is lack of rewards
3. It is not the result of incompetence or personal failings
D. Midcareer reassessment
1. Occurs when workers find out they are not being promoted as rapidly as expected or a job is less desirable than expected
2. Since there is a greater tolerance for deviations from social norms, it has become easier for a wife to support her husband
3. As children grow older and more independent, people in middle adulthood may make changes to reduce their income or transform their way of living
V. Continuity and Change in the Structure of Personality
A. The five factor model
1. Personality can be well described by assessing five traits
2. Emotional stability
3. Extraversion
4. Openness to experiences
5. Agreeableness
6. Conscientiousness
B. Stability or change?
1. Personality seems to be established early in life
2. Agreeableness and conscientiousness increase through adulthood
3. Emotional stability increases more for women than men
4. Personality can be shaped by life events
Thursday, June 25, 2009
Lecture Notes/Outine: Chapter 14: Middle Adulthood Physical & Cognitive Development
Chapter Chapter 14: Middle Adulthood Physical & Cognitive Development
I. Development in Middle Adulthood
A. Prime time or the beginning of the end?
1. Theorists cannot agree on whether or not it is a time of new fulfillment or a period of dissatisfaction
2. COMMAND GENERATION – a term for the generation of middle aged people; reflects the idea that this age group makes most of the policy decisions that affect our lives
3. Most people experience a sense of ambivalence since they are keenly aware of their mortality
B. Midlife crisis: is it real?
1. CRISIS MODEL – the view that changes in midlife are abrupt and often stressful
2. According to Levinson it occurs between the ages of 40 and 45 and it occurs in 75% of males
3. TRANSITION MODEL – the view that changes in midlife are gradual and midlife crisis is not the norm
4. Longitudinal studies do not support the occurrence of midlife crisis
5. Major transitions can occur in life but they do not have to occur in any specific time period
6. This is the period when people begin to take stock of their lives
C. Perceptions and realities at midlife
1. Some data show that middle age is the best time in life since the rates of general distress are low
2. Research also suggests that the midlife crisis is the exception and not the rule
3. Those who are likely to experience midlife crisis are less introspective and use denial to avoid thinking about their changing lives
II. Physical Continuity and Change
A. Changes in capabilities
1. Sensation
a. Decline in visual acuity
b. Hearing loss
c. Decline in taste
2. Reaction time
a. Slow decline in reaction time
b. Motor skills decrease
3. Internal changes
a. Slowing of the nervous system
b. Stiffening and shrinking of the skeleton
c. Loss of elasticity in the skin
d. Accumulation of subcutaneous fat
e. Decrease in heart and lung capacity
B. CLIMACTERIC – the broad complex of physical and emotional symptoms that accompany reproductive changes in middle adulthood, affecting both men and women
1. MENOPAUSE – the permanent end of menstruation; occurs in middle adulthood and may be accompanied by physical symptoms and intense emotional reactions, more so in women and in some cultures than others
2. Physical changes
a. Generally occur between 45 and 55
b. Ovulation becomes erratic and then stops
c. Hot flashes and night sweats occur due to the decrease in estrogen levels
3. Emotional effects
a. Feelings of depression and a sense of being less feminine
b. Most women do not respond negatively in either the short term or the long term
c. Many women feel freer and more in control of their own lives
4. Long term effects
a. OSTEOPOROSIS – the loss of bone mass and increased bone fragility in middle adulthood and beyond
b. Vaginal atrophy
c. There could also be a link between menopause and heart disease
5. Hormone replacement therapy
a. Estrogen or progesterone supplements
b. alleviates unpleasant symptoms of menopause
c. Could increase chance of heart disease
d. May prevent onset of Alzheimer’s
e. It is now recommended that women only use these drugs for the short term relief
6. Changes in men
a. Nothing comparable to menopause
b. May experience erectile dysfunction (impotence)
c. Originally thought of to be primarily a psychological problem but new research indicates a physiological basis
d. Prescription drugs can remedy it in 80% of men
C. Sexuality in the middle years
1. Frequency generally slows down in middle adulthood
2. Lack of opportunity and physical problems lead to this decrease
3. Men experience an increase in sexual anxiety
4. Women experience a decrease due to menopause
5. More emphasis placed on sensuality
6. SENSUALITY – hugging, touching, stroking, and other behaviors that may or may not lead to sex
III. Disease and Health
A. The cumulative effects of health habits
1. Good health habits
a. Longevity is attributable to good health
b. A balanced diet, exercise, and health care can extend adulthood
c. Exercise is especially important
2. Poor health habits
a. Most chronic disorders begin to develop before they are diagnosed since they show symptoms long after they begin
b. Smoking is one dangerous activity
c. Smoking can contribute to cancer, emphysema, arteriosclerosis, and hypertension
d. Long term effects are often compounded by other bad habits
e. Being overweight is also a significant contributor to poor life quality in adulthood
B. Stress and health
1. Stress plays a role in many diseases of middle adulthood
2. Stress is a normal part of life
3. How an individual perceives an event can dictate how stressful it becomes
4. Increased stress is connected to heart disease, diabetes, stomach ulcers, and some cancer
C. Ethnicity, poverty, and health
1. Since some groups of people live in more stressful conditions, their life quality is different
2. Blacks and Hispanics are more likely to die from heart disease, hypertension, cancer, diabetes, and aids than whites
3. This could be due to lack of health care, increased exposure to stress, and a high rate of poverty
IV. Cognitive Continuity and Change
A. Fluid versus crystallized intelligence
1. CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE – accumulated knowledge and skills based on education and life experiences; also referred to as cognitive pragmatics
2. FLUID INTELLIGENCE – abilities involved in acquiring new knowledge and skills; also referred to as cognitive mechanics
3. Crystallized remains unaffected by age
4. Fluid begins to diminish in adulthood and gets worse with age
5. Implications for intellectual functioning
a. A decline is most likely to be seen in tasks involving speed
b. General slowing is not noticed since adults compensate by an increase in efficiency and general knowledge
c. A major influence on cognition in adulthood is the wealth of past life experience
B. Experience and Expertise
1. DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE – factual knowledge; knowing what
2. PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE – action oriented knowledge; knowing how to
3. The accumulation of knowledge can compensate for cognitive declines
4. Experience cannot reverse age related declines, but it can compensate for them
5. One skill declines and another improves
C. Cognitive skill in the workplace
1. People who are intellectually challenged in their work have a higher degree of intellectual flexibility
2. Adults have more time to spend in the work place and can therefore have more intellectual flexibility
3. Engaging in complex tasks is key to maintaining high levels of intellectual functioning
I. Development in Middle Adulthood
A. Prime time or the beginning of the end?
1. Theorists cannot agree on whether or not it is a time of new fulfillment or a period of dissatisfaction
2. COMMAND GENERATION – a term for the generation of middle aged people; reflects the idea that this age group makes most of the policy decisions that affect our lives
3. Most people experience a sense of ambivalence since they are keenly aware of their mortality
B. Midlife crisis: is it real?
1. CRISIS MODEL – the view that changes in midlife are abrupt and often stressful
2. According to Levinson it occurs between the ages of 40 and 45 and it occurs in 75% of males
3. TRANSITION MODEL – the view that changes in midlife are gradual and midlife crisis is not the norm
4. Longitudinal studies do not support the occurrence of midlife crisis
5. Major transitions can occur in life but they do not have to occur in any specific time period
6. This is the period when people begin to take stock of their lives
C. Perceptions and realities at midlife
1. Some data show that middle age is the best time in life since the rates of general distress are low
2. Research also suggests that the midlife crisis is the exception and not the rule
3. Those who are likely to experience midlife crisis are less introspective and use denial to avoid thinking about their changing lives
II. Physical Continuity and Change
A. Changes in capabilities
1. Sensation
a. Decline in visual acuity
b. Hearing loss
c. Decline in taste
2. Reaction time
a. Slow decline in reaction time
b. Motor skills decrease
3. Internal changes
a. Slowing of the nervous system
b. Stiffening and shrinking of the skeleton
c. Loss of elasticity in the skin
d. Accumulation of subcutaneous fat
e. Decrease in heart and lung capacity
B. CLIMACTERIC – the broad complex of physical and emotional symptoms that accompany reproductive changes in middle adulthood, affecting both men and women
1. MENOPAUSE – the permanent end of menstruation; occurs in middle adulthood and may be accompanied by physical symptoms and intense emotional reactions, more so in women and in some cultures than others
2. Physical changes
a. Generally occur between 45 and 55
b. Ovulation becomes erratic and then stops
c. Hot flashes and night sweats occur due to the decrease in estrogen levels
3. Emotional effects
a. Feelings of depression and a sense of being less feminine
b. Most women do not respond negatively in either the short term or the long term
c. Many women feel freer and more in control of their own lives
4. Long term effects
a. OSTEOPOROSIS – the loss of bone mass and increased bone fragility in middle adulthood and beyond
b. Vaginal atrophy
c. There could also be a link between menopause and heart disease
5. Hormone replacement therapy
a. Estrogen or progesterone supplements
b. alleviates unpleasant symptoms of menopause
c. Could increase chance of heart disease
d. May prevent onset of Alzheimer’s
e. It is now recommended that women only use these drugs for the short term relief
6. Changes in men
a. Nothing comparable to menopause
b. May experience erectile dysfunction (impotence)
c. Originally thought of to be primarily a psychological problem but new research indicates a physiological basis
d. Prescription drugs can remedy it in 80% of men
C. Sexuality in the middle years
1. Frequency generally slows down in middle adulthood
2. Lack of opportunity and physical problems lead to this decrease
3. Men experience an increase in sexual anxiety
4. Women experience a decrease due to menopause
5. More emphasis placed on sensuality
6. SENSUALITY – hugging, touching, stroking, and other behaviors that may or may not lead to sex
III. Disease and Health
A. The cumulative effects of health habits
1. Good health habits
a. Longevity is attributable to good health
b. A balanced diet, exercise, and health care can extend adulthood
c. Exercise is especially important
2. Poor health habits
a. Most chronic disorders begin to develop before they are diagnosed since they show symptoms long after they begin
b. Smoking is one dangerous activity
c. Smoking can contribute to cancer, emphysema, arteriosclerosis, and hypertension
d. Long term effects are often compounded by other bad habits
e. Being overweight is also a significant contributor to poor life quality in adulthood
B. Stress and health
1. Stress plays a role in many diseases of middle adulthood
2. Stress is a normal part of life
3. How an individual perceives an event can dictate how stressful it becomes
4. Increased stress is connected to heart disease, diabetes, stomach ulcers, and some cancer
C. Ethnicity, poverty, and health
1. Since some groups of people live in more stressful conditions, their life quality is different
2. Blacks and Hispanics are more likely to die from heart disease, hypertension, cancer, diabetes, and aids than whites
3. This could be due to lack of health care, increased exposure to stress, and a high rate of poverty
IV. Cognitive Continuity and Change
A. Fluid versus crystallized intelligence
1. CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE – accumulated knowledge and skills based on education and life experiences; also referred to as cognitive pragmatics
2. FLUID INTELLIGENCE – abilities involved in acquiring new knowledge and skills; also referred to as cognitive mechanics
3. Crystallized remains unaffected by age
4. Fluid begins to diminish in adulthood and gets worse with age
5. Implications for intellectual functioning
a. A decline is most likely to be seen in tasks involving speed
b. General slowing is not noticed since adults compensate by an increase in efficiency and general knowledge
c. A major influence on cognition in adulthood is the wealth of past life experience
B. Experience and Expertise
1. DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE – factual knowledge; knowing what
2. PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE – action oriented knowledge; knowing how to
3. The accumulation of knowledge can compensate for cognitive declines
4. Experience cannot reverse age related declines, but it can compensate for them
5. One skill declines and another improves
C. Cognitive skill in the workplace
1. People who are intellectually challenged in their work have a higher degree of intellectual flexibility
2. Adults have more time to spend in the work place and can therefore have more intellectual flexibility
3. Engaging in complex tasks is key to maintaining high levels of intellectual functioning
Tuesday, June 23, 2009
Grades - Test 3: Chapters 6,7,8,9
P33 – 39/C+
O41- 45/A
T11 – 26
S56 – 33/D
U77 – 33/D
W80 – 41/B
Z99 – 45/A
N01 – 32/D
Y08 – 45/A
X90 – 44/B+
V16 – 48/A
M51 – 47/A
L88 – 48/A
O41- 45/A
T11 – 26
S56 – 33/D
U77 – 33/D
W80 – 41/B
Z99 – 45/A
N01 – 32/D
Y08 – 45/A
X90 – 44/B+
V16 – 48/A
M51 – 47/A
L88 – 48/A
Monday, June 22, 2009
Chapter 12: Young Adulthood; Physical & Cognitive Development
Slide 2
ü Adulthood is not the final destination in the development journey
o You don’t stop developing when you “get there”
o We have divided the first 20 years or so into 4 distinct stages [infancy & toddlers, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence].
o Adulthood generally lasts much longer…3,4, or even 5 times longer; it only reasonable that there are distinct stages of development continues. Early adulthood [20’s & 30’s] is just another beginning; similar to toddlers and young children.
ü Developmental changes in thinking, personality & behavior during
adulthood is very different from child development
o Generally, based much less on chronological age or biological changes - More on personal, social or cultural influences
o Adult role & responsibility for decision-making and problem-solving
o Leads to greater differences among adults than children; adults have less in common with one another than children have in common with one another
Slide 3
ü Culturally defined markers or “social milestones” of development rather than physical markers like walking or pubescence
o Normative: getting your first job, moving out of parent’s home, marriage, career choice & advancement, parenting, etc.
Timing differs from individual to individual & culture to culture but generally occur at “relatively” specific times for most people in a particular group
o Idiosyncratic: unanticipated “life-changing events”; getting fired, death of a spouse, winning the lottery
Slide 4
Age Clocks & Social Norms: concepts that help study & categorize adult development; since it is mainly based on individual behavior & judgement
Slide 5
o Age clocks are a sort of “internal timing” regarding life events, in relation to one’s culture
Example: birth of first child
o Cultural changes in last couple of decades “blurring of traditional life periods” ; we are becoming an “age-irrelevant” society
Slide 6
o Contextual Paradigm: very complex idea of integrating various “contexts”.
Focus on development as a whole, as opposed to looking at one perspective at a time.
Everything influences everything else
Slide 7
Strength & Stamina
o Most young adults at peak of physical development: strength, endurance
o Generally physical functioning on the whole reaches its prime
o Gradual decline in functioning in most areas between 20 & 30 [see table page 372]
Slide 8
o Health & fitness habits important & often those developed in early adulthood often carry over through later years. FORM GOOD HABITS YOUNG!
o Historical changes based on improvements in exercise, medicine & nutrition. Example of Olympic performance [not to mention use of steroids]
Slide 9
Causes of death among young adults
o Accidents, HIV/AIDS, Cancers (among women)
Slide 10
Sex & sexuality: Attitudes & behavior
o Monogamy
o 1/3 2X week; 1/3 several X month, 1/3 none to a few X year
o Married couples have more sex & more orgasms.
o Only very minor differences in frequency across ethic groups
o Major changes in past few decades
>Duration has increased markedly
>Suggests greater relaxation, enjoyment & mutuality
>Maximize pleasure vs. get it over with
Cognitive Changes: Adult thinking referred to as “Post Formal Thought”
o Goes beyond Piaget’s Formal Operations which is simpler, logic-driven
o Uses cognitive & emotional aspects in problem-solving
o Takes into account social context
Slide 11
Goleman’s 4 areas of Emotional Intelligence
Developing emotional self-awareness
Managing emotions
Reading emotions
Handling relationships
Slide 12
Major Tasks of Early Adulthood ( Table 12-7; p. 395)
Erikson -
Gould – Overcome dependency assumptions, develop competence, acknowledge limitations, accept responsibility
Havighurst – Start a Family & establish a career
Slide 13
Schaie - using intellectual & cognitive abilities to accomplish personal & career goals
Slide 14
Levenson – develop “early life structure”, which includes establishing a career & an intimate relationship with a special partner
o Different for men & women – pages 391& 392
Slide 2
ü Adulthood is not the final destination in the development journey
o You don’t stop developing when you “get there”
o We have divided the first 20 years or so into 4 distinct stages [infancy & toddlers, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence].
o Adulthood generally lasts much longer…3,4, or even 5 times longer; it only reasonable that there are distinct stages of development continues. Early adulthood [20’s & 30’s] is just another beginning; similar to toddlers and young children.
ü Developmental changes in thinking, personality & behavior during
adulthood is very different from child development
o Generally, based much less on chronological age or biological changes - More on personal, social or cultural influences
o Adult role & responsibility for decision-making and problem-solving
o Leads to greater differences among adults than children; adults have less in common with one another than children have in common with one another
Slide 3
ü Culturally defined markers or “social milestones” of development rather than physical markers like walking or pubescence
o Normative: getting your first job, moving out of parent’s home, marriage, career choice & advancement, parenting, etc.
Timing differs from individual to individual & culture to culture but generally occur at “relatively” specific times for most people in a particular group
o Idiosyncratic: unanticipated “life-changing events”; getting fired, death of a spouse, winning the lottery
Slide 4
Age Clocks & Social Norms: concepts that help study & categorize adult development; since it is mainly based on individual behavior & judgement
Slide 5
o Age clocks are a sort of “internal timing” regarding life events, in relation to one’s culture
Example: birth of first child
o Cultural changes in last couple of decades “blurring of traditional life periods” ; we are becoming an “age-irrelevant” society
Slide 6
o Contextual Paradigm: very complex idea of integrating various “contexts”.
Focus on development as a whole, as opposed to looking at one perspective at a time.
Everything influences everything else
Slide 7
Strength & Stamina
o Most young adults at peak of physical development: strength, endurance
o Generally physical functioning on the whole reaches its prime
o Gradual decline in functioning in most areas between 20 & 30 [see table page 372]
Slide 8
o Health & fitness habits important & often those developed in early adulthood often carry over through later years. FORM GOOD HABITS YOUNG!
o Historical changes based on improvements in exercise, medicine & nutrition. Example of Olympic performance [not to mention use of steroids]
Slide 9
Causes of death among young adults
o Accidents, HIV/AIDS, Cancers (among women)
Slide 10
Sex & sexuality: Attitudes & behavior
o Monogamy
o 1/3 2X week; 1/3 several X month, 1/3 none to a few X year
o Married couples have more sex & more orgasms.
o Only very minor differences in frequency across ethic groups
o Major changes in past few decades
>Duration has increased markedly
>Suggests greater relaxation, enjoyment & mutuality
>Maximize pleasure vs. get it over with
Cognitive Changes: Adult thinking referred to as “Post Formal Thought”
o Goes beyond Piaget’s Formal Operations which is simpler, logic-driven
o Uses cognitive & emotional aspects in problem-solving
o Takes into account social context
Slide 11
Goleman’s 4 areas of Emotional Intelligence
Developing emotional self-awareness
Managing emotions
Reading emotions
Handling relationships
Slide 12
Major Tasks of Early Adulthood ( Table 12-7; p. 395)
Erikson -
Gould – Overcome dependency assumptions, develop competence, acknowledge limitations, accept responsibility
Havighurst – Start a Family & establish a career
Slide 13
Schaie - using intellectual & cognitive abilities to accomplish personal & career goals
Slide 14
Levenson – develop “early life structure”, which includes establishing a career & an intimate relationship with a special partner
o Different for men & women – pages 391& 392
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outine Chapter 13 – Young Adult Personality & Sociocultural Development
Chapter 13 – Young Adult Personality & Sociocultural Development
As we enter adulthood, we become socialized into new roles
Ø Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory
Ø Carl Rogers
Facets of Self
Family member
Worker – intrinsic; extrinsic
Youthful “ideal”
Must be integrated into self-identity
Close Relationships: Friendships & similarity to Love
Ericson: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
Components:
1. Intimacy
2. Passion
3. Decision to commit/commitment
Taxonomy:
1. liking
2. infatuated love
3. empty love
4. companionate love
5. fatuous [foolishly self-satisfied] love
6. consummate [perfect] love
Mate selection & marriage
Why & how people choose mates - various theories
Freud: acceptable focus for oedipal feelings
Instrumental theory of mate selection – based on gratification of needs,
attraction based on similar or complementary needs
Stimulus-Value- Role Theory: stimulus stage, value-comparison stage, role stage [determine if marriage/relationship roles can/will endure]
Family Systems perspective: focus on boundaries & redefining relationships with friends & family, as well as couples own relationship
Marriage vs. cohabitation
90% of men & women marry at some point in their lives
Cohabitation - overtly focus that they are not married.
1/3 of cohabitating couples eventually marry
Parenting & development
Family cycles
Transition to parenthood
1. changes in identity & inner life
2. shifting roles & relationship in the marriage
3. shifts in general roles & relationships [grandparent factor]
4. Changing roles outside of family [work, friends, etc.]
5. new parenting role & relationship – navigating new responsibilities
Parents’ developmental stages
1. Image-making stage [conception to birth, what kind of parent will I be?]
2. Nurturing stage – birth to 2 [until the kid says “NO”]
3. Authority stage – 2-5 [often question their parenting skills, know they aren’t perfect]
4. interpretive stage – middle years 6-12 [parents reexamine & test out their ideas about parenting
5. Interdependence stage – adolescence [redefine their authority relationship]
6. departure stage – letting go & accepting experiences as a parent
Single Parenthood
Tremendous change – in 70’s one in 7 kids lived in a home with no father
Single –parent families have increased 10X faster than 2-parent families since then. 1995 1/3 (33.3%)of all families headed by single mother.
why?
1. In the 70’s & early ‘80’s – divorce was at its peak. That was why then. In ‘99 it was 12% lower than in ’79. In ’95 2 out 5 [40%] of marriages expected to fail. Most divorces happen during early adulthood
2. Now: large increase in unmarried mothers [in ’98 almost 1/3 of births were to unmarried women – nearly 70% among black women]
3. increase in # of mothers separated but not divorced
Single fathers & Gay & Lesbian families
Single fathers still rare but getting more common. 10% gain custody after
divorce; 16% joint custody]
Gay & Lesbian very new phenomenon
Occupation / career cycles
Stages of vocational life:
1. id. with. a worker [5-10]
2. acquiring “habits of industry” [10-15]
3. Develop Id. as a worker [15- 25
4. becoming productive person [25 –40]
5. maintaining/contributing to productive society [40 – 70]
6. contemplation of productive & responsible life [70 - ]
Women in the workforce
Myths
As we enter adulthood, we become socialized into new roles
Ø Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory
Ø Carl Rogers
Facets of Self
Family member
Worker – intrinsic; extrinsic
Youthful “ideal”
Must be integrated into self-identity
Close Relationships: Friendships & similarity to Love
Ericson: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
Components:
1. Intimacy
2. Passion
3. Decision to commit/commitment
Taxonomy:
1. liking
2. infatuated love
3. empty love
4. companionate love
5. fatuous [foolishly self-satisfied] love
6. consummate [perfect] love
Mate selection & marriage
Why & how people choose mates - various theories
Freud: acceptable focus for oedipal feelings
Instrumental theory of mate selection – based on gratification of needs,
attraction based on similar or complementary needs
Stimulus-Value- Role Theory: stimulus stage, value-comparison stage, role stage [determine if marriage/relationship roles can/will endure]
Family Systems perspective: focus on boundaries & redefining relationships with friends & family, as well as couples own relationship
Marriage vs. cohabitation
90% of men & women marry at some point in their lives
Cohabitation - overtly focus that they are not married.
1/3 of cohabitating couples eventually marry
Parenting & development
Family cycles
Transition to parenthood
1. changes in identity & inner life
2. shifting roles & relationship in the marriage
3. shifts in general roles & relationships [grandparent factor]
4. Changing roles outside of family [work, friends, etc.]
5. new parenting role & relationship – navigating new responsibilities
Parents’ developmental stages
1. Image-making stage [conception to birth, what kind of parent will I be?]
2. Nurturing stage – birth to 2 [until the kid says “NO”]
3. Authority stage – 2-5 [often question their parenting skills, know they aren’t perfect]
4. interpretive stage – middle years 6-12 [parents reexamine & test out their ideas about parenting
5. Interdependence stage – adolescence [redefine their authority relationship]
6. departure stage – letting go & accepting experiences as a parent
Single Parenthood
Tremendous change – in 70’s one in 7 kids lived in a home with no father
Single –parent families have increased 10X faster than 2-parent families since then. 1995 1/3 (33.3%)of all families headed by single mother.
why?
1. In the 70’s & early ‘80’s – divorce was at its peak. That was why then. In ‘99 it was 12% lower than in ’79. In ’95 2 out 5 [40%] of marriages expected to fail. Most divorces happen during early adulthood
2. Now: large increase in unmarried mothers [in ’98 almost 1/3 of births were to unmarried women – nearly 70% among black women]
3. increase in # of mothers separated but not divorced
Single fathers & Gay & Lesbian families
Single fathers still rare but getting more common. 10% gain custody after
divorce; 16% joint custody]
Gay & Lesbian very new phenomenon
Occupation / career cycles
Stages of vocational life:
1. id. with. a worker [5-10]
2. acquiring “habits of industry” [10-15]
3. Develop Id. as a worker [15- 25
4. becoming productive person [25 –40]
5. maintaining/contributing to productive society [40 – 70]
6. contemplation of productive & responsible life [70 - ]
Women in the workforce
Myths
Thursday, June 18, 2009
Chapter 11: Adolescence: Personality & Sociocultural Development
Chapter 11
Adolescence: Personality & Sociocultural Development
I. Developmental Tasks of Adolescence
A. Most theorists agree that adolescents must confront two major tasks
1. Achieving autonomy and independence from their parents
2. Forming an identity
B. Self regulation and interdependence
1. SELF REGULATION – in adolescence, making one’s own judgments and regulating one’s own behavior
2. INTERDEPENDENCE – reciprocal dependence, where both parties depend on each other
C. Forming an identity
1. IDENTITY FORMATION – gaining a sense of who you are and how you fit into society
2. SOCIAL REFERENCE GROUPS – narrow or broad groups with which people identify, and in so doing, help to define themselves
3. Erikson’s concept of identity
a. IDENTITY VERSUS IDENTITY CONFUSION – for Erikson, the critical developmental task for adolescents, which focuses on forging an answer to the question, “Who am I?”
b. The adolescent tries out various alternative identities as they attempt to sort through the options to make sense of who they are
c. If they do not decide, they withdraw and become isolated or they conform to expectations of whoever exerts the greatest power over their lives
4. Modes of identity formation
a. Erikson believed that identity formation involved an IDENTITY CRISIS – a period during which individuals grapple with the options available and ultimately make a choice and commitment as to which path their lives will take
b. Other researchers though defined identity formation into four modes or statuses
i. COMMITMENT – for Marcia, the part of identity formation that involves making a personal investment in the paths one chooses
ii. FORCLOSRE STATUS – the identity status of those who have made commitments without going through much decision making or through an identity crisis
iii. DIFFUSIO STATUS – the identity status of those who have neither gone through an identity crisis nor committed to an occupational role or moral code
iv. MORATORiIM STATUS – the identity status of those who are currently in the midst of an identity crisis or decision making period
v. IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT – the identity status of those who have gone through an identity crisis and have made commitments
c. influences on identity formation
i. Identity status influences an adolescent’s social expectations, self image, and reactions to stress
ii. The environment, age, and gender also influence identity formation
D. Identity formation, culture and context
1. Collectivist societies place much less emphasis on autonomy and more on a child becoming and remaining interdependent with others
2. Western societies stress becoming a distinct, relatively autonomous individual as opposed to becoming a contributing member of a cooperative group
II. Family Dynamics
A. Intergenerational communication
1. Research shows that there is much less conflict between adolescents and their families than often assumed
2. Conflict occurs more frequently in early adolescence than in later adolescence
B. Family alliances
1. Family alliances shape behavior before adolescence
a. A person dominated by an older sibling is likely to dominate his/her younger siblings
b. A “daddy’s girl” at age 6 will still be close to her father at age 16
2. Parenting styles and parental monitoring
a. Three primary parental styles
i. Adolescents who have experienced authoritarian parenting become dependent and anxious in the presence of authority figures or may become defiant and resentful
ii. Adolescents who have experienced permissive parenting may have difficulty setting boundaries and defining appropriate behavior
iii. Adolescents who have authoritative parents display normal and healthy behavior
b. Adolescents have fewer conflicts with their fathers, which suggests that fathers interfere less and allow greater freedom for teenagers
c. Mothers interact with their children more both in and out of the home and this can cause greater strain, but it also tends to create greater closeness
d. Parental monitoring occurs when the adolescent moves closer to adulthood since the parents cannot be with the adolescent at all times and teens do not offer full disclosure about their life
III. Peer Relationships During Adolescence
A. Social comparison
1. SOCIAL COMPARISON – evaluating yourself and your situation relative to others
2. Teens define themselves in a diverse peer arena made up of many different kinds of young people
3. Initially they focus on appearance and personality characteristics
4. Teens seek few close friendships and more loose friendships
5. As intimacy in friendship increases sharing of personal feeling and concerns occurs
B. Cliques and crowds
1. CROWD – adolescent peer group with perhaps 15 to 30 members
2. CLIQUE – adolescent peer group with as few as 3 members or as many as 9; more cohesive than crowd
3. Loners are those who do not belong to identifiable cliques or crowds. When it is voluntary it can provide creativity and relief from pressure
C. Dating
1. Adolescence is a stage of testing, imagining, and discovering what it is like to function in mixed groups and pairs
2. Young adolescents look for dates who are physically attractive, dress well, and are liked by others
3. Older adolescents are less superficial and are more concerned about personality characteristics
D. Peers and parents: a clash of cultures
1. As peers replace parents as the primary socializing force in a teenager’s life, parents become concerned about the characteristics of the peers
2. If the peers are different than the parents would prefer a clash of cultures occurs
3. This conflict is usually more serious for girls because disparities in hairstyles and dress are greater for women
IV. Risk and Resilience in Adolescence
A. Risk taking
1. Adolescents engage in sex, possibly without protection or with multiple partners, or abuse drugs
2. Adolescents’ judgment may not be fully developed and they could not understand the risks they are taking
3. When they develop self esteem, competence, and belonging they are less likely to engage in risky behavior
B. The use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs
1. Mostly prevalent in latter part of teenage years and in early adulthood
2. Tobacco
a. Smoking becomes alluring because it is a perceived symbol of maturity
b. Boys tend to smoke more and earlier
3. Alcohol
a. Alcohol is also perceived as something that lends itself to maturity and adulthood
b. Is most prevalent in teens whose friends drink
c. Binge drinking is especially problematic
4. Marijuana
a. The third most widely used drug in the US
b. Short term effects include impaired coordination, memory, attention, and perception, rise in heart rate, and rise in blood pressure
c. Long term effects are comparable to smoking cigarettes
5. Other drugs
a. Use of cocaine, heroine, LSD have been low
b. Designer drugs like ecstasy have become popular at raves
c. Methamphetamine use has increased primarily in rural areas
C. Delinquency
1. DELINQUENTS - people under age 16 or 18 who commit criminal acts
2. Association between crime and living in disadvantaged or stressful environments have been noted to contribute to delinquency
3. Other factors include the mass media and because adolescents seek to be members of delinquent peer groups
D. Sexual abuse of adolescents
1. Abuse is a problem for many adolescents, both male and female
2. Female
a. In early adolescence it is primarily between a female and an older adult male relative or family friend
b. Older adolescents are subjected to date rape
c. Sexually abused and traumatized girls often feel depressed, guilty and ashamed
d. Abuse is often long term
3. Male
a. Also most likely to be abused by a male who is not a family member
b. Feel particularly ashamed since they were forced to engage in same sex acts and they were powerless to defend themselves
V. Stress, Depression, and Coping
A. Depression
1. At any time about 8% of adolescents are suffering from moderate to severe depression
2. An interactive approach
a. Results from a combination of risk factors that interact, including biological, psychological, and social systems variables
b. Can be treated with prescription drugs
3. Adolescent suicide
a. Suicide rates have quadrupled for ages 15 & 19
b. They are not responding to one disturbing event, rather the context of long standing personal or family problems
c. copycat suicides are likely in adolescents because of the belief that the future is beyond their control
B. Risk factors for psychological problems tend to fall into four categories:
1. Teenage sexual activity
2. Abuse of alcohol
3. Antisocial and unproductive behavior
4. Poor school performance
C. Protective factors and coping responses
1. For adolescents whose lives have been easy, most risk factors are minor problems and positive adjustment is a likely outcome
2. Problematic adjustments are usually the result of experiencing several negative risk factors along with the interactions among them
3. Good intellectual functioning and appealing personalities, strong positive family support, good schools, and favorable organizations are likely to be associated with adolescents who can deal effectively with bad circumstances
Adolescence: Personality & Sociocultural Development
I. Developmental Tasks of Adolescence
A. Most theorists agree that adolescents must confront two major tasks
1. Achieving autonomy and independence from their parents
2. Forming an identity
B. Self regulation and interdependence
1. SELF REGULATION – in adolescence, making one’s own judgments and regulating one’s own behavior
2. INTERDEPENDENCE – reciprocal dependence, where both parties depend on each other
C. Forming an identity
1. IDENTITY FORMATION – gaining a sense of who you are and how you fit into society
2. SOCIAL REFERENCE GROUPS – narrow or broad groups with which people identify, and in so doing, help to define themselves
3. Erikson’s concept of identity
a. IDENTITY VERSUS IDENTITY CONFUSION – for Erikson, the critical developmental task for adolescents, which focuses on forging an answer to the question, “Who am I?”
b. The adolescent tries out various alternative identities as they attempt to sort through the options to make sense of who they are
c. If they do not decide, they withdraw and become isolated or they conform to expectations of whoever exerts the greatest power over their lives
4. Modes of identity formation
a. Erikson believed that identity formation involved an IDENTITY CRISIS – a period during which individuals grapple with the options available and ultimately make a choice and commitment as to which path their lives will take
b. Other researchers though defined identity formation into four modes or statuses
i. COMMITMENT – for Marcia, the part of identity formation that involves making a personal investment in the paths one chooses
ii. FORCLOSRE STATUS – the identity status of those who have made commitments without going through much decision making or through an identity crisis
iii. DIFFUSIO STATUS – the identity status of those who have neither gone through an identity crisis nor committed to an occupational role or moral code
iv. MORATORiIM STATUS – the identity status of those who are currently in the midst of an identity crisis or decision making period
v. IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT – the identity status of those who have gone through an identity crisis and have made commitments
c. influences on identity formation
i. Identity status influences an adolescent’s social expectations, self image, and reactions to stress
ii. The environment, age, and gender also influence identity formation
D. Identity formation, culture and context
1. Collectivist societies place much less emphasis on autonomy and more on a child becoming and remaining interdependent with others
2. Western societies stress becoming a distinct, relatively autonomous individual as opposed to becoming a contributing member of a cooperative group
II. Family Dynamics
A. Intergenerational communication
1. Research shows that there is much less conflict between adolescents and their families than often assumed
2. Conflict occurs more frequently in early adolescence than in later adolescence
B. Family alliances
1. Family alliances shape behavior before adolescence
a. A person dominated by an older sibling is likely to dominate his/her younger siblings
b. A “daddy’s girl” at age 6 will still be close to her father at age 16
2. Parenting styles and parental monitoring
a. Three primary parental styles
i. Adolescents who have experienced authoritarian parenting become dependent and anxious in the presence of authority figures or may become defiant and resentful
ii. Adolescents who have experienced permissive parenting may have difficulty setting boundaries and defining appropriate behavior
iii. Adolescents who have authoritative parents display normal and healthy behavior
b. Adolescents have fewer conflicts with their fathers, which suggests that fathers interfere less and allow greater freedom for teenagers
c. Mothers interact with their children more both in and out of the home and this can cause greater strain, but it also tends to create greater closeness
d. Parental monitoring occurs when the adolescent moves closer to adulthood since the parents cannot be with the adolescent at all times and teens do not offer full disclosure about their life
III. Peer Relationships During Adolescence
A. Social comparison
1. SOCIAL COMPARISON – evaluating yourself and your situation relative to others
2. Teens define themselves in a diverse peer arena made up of many different kinds of young people
3. Initially they focus on appearance and personality characteristics
4. Teens seek few close friendships and more loose friendships
5. As intimacy in friendship increases sharing of personal feeling and concerns occurs
B. Cliques and crowds
1. CROWD – adolescent peer group with perhaps 15 to 30 members
2. CLIQUE – adolescent peer group with as few as 3 members or as many as 9; more cohesive than crowd
3. Loners are those who do not belong to identifiable cliques or crowds. When it is voluntary it can provide creativity and relief from pressure
C. Dating
1. Adolescence is a stage of testing, imagining, and discovering what it is like to function in mixed groups and pairs
2. Young adolescents look for dates who are physically attractive, dress well, and are liked by others
3. Older adolescents are less superficial and are more concerned about personality characteristics
D. Peers and parents: a clash of cultures
1. As peers replace parents as the primary socializing force in a teenager’s life, parents become concerned about the characteristics of the peers
2. If the peers are different than the parents would prefer a clash of cultures occurs
3. This conflict is usually more serious for girls because disparities in hairstyles and dress are greater for women
IV. Risk and Resilience in Adolescence
A. Risk taking
1. Adolescents engage in sex, possibly without protection or with multiple partners, or abuse drugs
2. Adolescents’ judgment may not be fully developed and they could not understand the risks they are taking
3. When they develop self esteem, competence, and belonging they are less likely to engage in risky behavior
B. The use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs
1. Mostly prevalent in latter part of teenage years and in early adulthood
2. Tobacco
a. Smoking becomes alluring because it is a perceived symbol of maturity
b. Boys tend to smoke more and earlier
3. Alcohol
a. Alcohol is also perceived as something that lends itself to maturity and adulthood
b. Is most prevalent in teens whose friends drink
c. Binge drinking is especially problematic
4. Marijuana
a. The third most widely used drug in the US
b. Short term effects include impaired coordination, memory, attention, and perception, rise in heart rate, and rise in blood pressure
c. Long term effects are comparable to smoking cigarettes
5. Other drugs
a. Use of cocaine, heroine, LSD have been low
b. Designer drugs like ecstasy have become popular at raves
c. Methamphetamine use has increased primarily in rural areas
C. Delinquency
1. DELINQUENTS - people under age 16 or 18 who commit criminal acts
2. Association between crime and living in disadvantaged or stressful environments have been noted to contribute to delinquency
3. Other factors include the mass media and because adolescents seek to be members of delinquent peer groups
D. Sexual abuse of adolescents
1. Abuse is a problem for many adolescents, both male and female
2. Female
a. In early adolescence it is primarily between a female and an older adult male relative or family friend
b. Older adolescents are subjected to date rape
c. Sexually abused and traumatized girls often feel depressed, guilty and ashamed
d. Abuse is often long term
3. Male
a. Also most likely to be abused by a male who is not a family member
b. Feel particularly ashamed since they were forced to engage in same sex acts and they were powerless to defend themselves
V. Stress, Depression, and Coping
A. Depression
1. At any time about 8% of adolescents are suffering from moderate to severe depression
2. An interactive approach
a. Results from a combination of risk factors that interact, including biological, psychological, and social systems variables
b. Can be treated with prescription drugs
3. Adolescent suicide
a. Suicide rates have quadrupled for ages 15 & 19
b. They are not responding to one disturbing event, rather the context of long standing personal or family problems
c. copycat suicides are likely in adolescents because of the belief that the future is beyond their control
B. Risk factors for psychological problems tend to fall into four categories:
1. Teenage sexual activity
2. Abuse of alcohol
3. Antisocial and unproductive behavior
4. Poor school performance
C. Protective factors and coping responses
1. For adolescents whose lives have been easy, most risk factors are minor problems and positive adjustment is a likely outcome
2. Problematic adjustments are usually the result of experiencing several negative risk factors along with the interactions among them
3. Good intellectual functioning and appealing personalities, strong positive family support, good schools, and favorable organizations are likely to be associated with adolescents who can deal effectively with bad circumstances
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outine Chapter 10: Adolescence
Chapter 10
Adolescence: Physical & Cognitive Development
I. Adolescent Development in a Cultural and Historical Context
A. RIGHTS OF PASSAGE – symbolic events or rituals to mark life transitions, such as from childhood to adult status.
1. As social circumstances change, adolescents react and adapt to the social relationships and institutions around them.
2. The social context in which development occurs must be considered in understanding adolescence.
B. Adolescence in the United States Today
1. Adolescents are largely age segregated, that is, they interact mostly with other adolescents and much less with younger children or adults.
a. Developmental niche: the interaction of various aspects of development - such as everyday physical & social settings, parenting & family customs & overall environmental context – that determines the unique world of each individual.
b. This separates the adolescent from younger children and thus deprives them of the opportunity to guide and tutor those who are less knowledgeable.
c. This also separates them from adult culture and they lack the chance to learn jobs by working with adults
2. Adolescents are also largely economically dependent on their parents
3. Adolescents are deeply affected by, and develop strong opinions about, the events of the time in which they live.
4. Adolescents are influenced by images projected by the mass media
a. They accept tragedy, sexuality, and brutality in a matter of fact way
b. Adolescents tend to gravitate to the more grizzly, counterculture aspects of media programming.
II. Physical Development and Adaptation
A. Physical Growth and Change
1. The biological hallmarks of adolescence are a marked increase in the rate of growth, rapid development of the reproductive organs, and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics such as body hair, increased body fat and muscle, and enlargement and maturation of genitalia
2. Some changes are the same for both boys and girls – increased size, strength, and stamina
3. Most changes are sex specific
4. The physical changes are largely controlled by HORMONES, which are the bio-chemical substances that are secreted into the bloodstream in very tiny amounts by internal organs called endocrine glands; hormones exert an effect on particular target organs or tissues.
a. ANDROGENS are male sex hormones; TESTOSTERONE is the most important androgen
b. ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE are both female sex hormones
c. The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are the two areas of the brain that maintain the balance of hormones.
i. The hypothalamus initiates growth and eventual reproductive capability
ii. The pituitary gland produces both growth hormones and some trophic hormones
5. The increase in hormone output is followed by the ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT, a period of rapid growth in physical size and strength, accompanied by changes in body proportion. Especially for girls, the growth spurt is a sign of entry into puberty.
B. PUBERTY is the attainment of sexual maturity in both males and females
1. A SECULAR TREND toward earlier sexual maturation has occurred.
2. Changes in girls
a. Breast development
b. Growth of pubic hair
c. Growth of underarm hair
d. Body growth
e. MENARCHE – the time of the first menstrual period
f. Increased output of oil and sweat producing glands
3. Changes in boys
a. Growth of testes and scrotal sac
b. Growth of pubic hair
c. Growth of facial and underarm hair
d. Body growth
e. Growth of penis
f. Change in voice
g. First ejaculation of semen
h. Increased output of oil and sweat producing glands
C. Body Image and Adjustment
1. MARGINAL GROUP is a group between cultures or on the fringe of a dominant culture that typically exhibits an intensified need to conform
2. Concerns about body image
a. ANOREXIA NERVOSA – an eating disorder in which a person is obsessed by thoughts of an unattainable image of perfect thinness; can result in death
b. BULIMIA NERVOSA – an eating disorder characterized by bingeing and purging
3. Early and late maturers
a. Girls mature on average 2 years earlier than boys
b. Early maturation is rarely a benefit for girls
i. One effect is that they have fewer opportunities to discuss their physical and emotional changes with friends
ii. They are significantly more likely to experience psychological distress over their maturity (e.g. lower self esteem).
c. Late maturation is rarely a benefit for boys.
i. They miss valuable childhood psychological development
ii. May be pressured into early sexual behavior
iii. More likely to experience psychological distress
III. Gender Identity and Sexual Practices
A. Four Decades of Changes in Sexual Practices
1. In the 1950’s and 1960’s most young people felt premarital sex was immoral
2. In the late 1960’s and 1970’s sexual attitudes changed partly because of the development of birth control
3. SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD is the view that sexual activity is more permissible for boys than for girls; this became less endorsed in the 1970’s
4. SAME SEX ORIENTATION is the sexual attraction toward members of one’s own sex
5. A sexual revolution was in full swing during the late 1970’s
6. In the 1980’s the revolution in changing sexual norms began to decline. People began to view the sexual attitudes of the 1970’s as irresponsible.
7. The 1990’s ushered in some stability in sexual attitudes.
8. Masturbation, homosexuality, cohabitation, premarital sex, “serial monogamy”, etc.
B. Factors that Influence Early Sexual Relationships
1. The age at which a person first becomes sexually active varies by both gender and ethnicity.
2. Sexual activity is also associated with the adolescent’s family situation
a. Adolescents from two parent families have less and later sexual experience than those from single parent families
b. Overly restrictive and overly permissive parenting are associated with earlier sexual activity
c. Education is also positively correlated with the age sexual activity occurs
C. Consequences of Adolescent Sexual Behavior
1. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
a. One of the most serious problems of adolescent sexual activity
b. About 20% of sexually active teenagers have an STD
2. Why teenagers become pregnant
a. 8% of teenaged girls become pregnant
b. 75% of girls and 82% of boys do not use contraception at first intercourse
c. Adolescents feel uncomfortable making demands of their partner in times of high excitement
d. Pregnancy rates have been decreasing in the last decade
3. The Effects of Early Parenthood
a. For the mother
i. Less likely to marry the father of their first child
ii. More likely to become divorced
iii. More likely to spend twice as much time as a single parent prior to age 30
iv. More likely to drop out of school
v. Less likely to earn a high school diploma by age 30
vi. More likely to work more hours at a lower rate of pay
b. For the father
i. Less likely to earn a high school diploma
ii. More likely to work in a blue collar ocupation
iii. More likely to experience lower income levels
iv. More likely to engage in delinquent and criminal behaviors
c. For the Child
i. More likely to be born premature and of low birth weight
ii. More likely to experience serious or life threatening medical conditions at birth
iii. Less likely to receive quality medical care and nutrition
iv. Less likely to receive necessary emotional support and cognitive stimulation
v. More likely to drop out of school
vi. More likely to become involved in delinquent and criminal behaviors
vii. More likely to have children before marriage
d. For society
i. Increased financial burden to taxpayers and extended families
ii. Additional strain on the resources of governmental programs and systems
IV. Cognitive Changes in Adolescence
A. Brain Development in Adolescence
1. Brain Imaging
a. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) technologies are providing researchers a clearer look at how brain cells develop
b. Children’s brains contain more nerve cells than the adult brain will retain
c. Important changes continue to occur within the brain long past childhood, adolescence and perhaps even into early adulthood
2. Changes in the Adolescent Brain
a. Gray matter levels at the age of 25
b. White matter increases until about the age of 40
c. The processes of pruning and increasing myelinization first start in the back of the brain and then occur in brain areas responsible for coordination and end in areas that control decision making and problem solving
3. The Influence of Hormones on the Brain
a. Hormones tend to target areas of the brain related to emotional regulation such as the amygdale
i. When the amygdale is triggered, emotions become volatile
ii. Stimulus seeking behavior and risk seeking tendencies also occur
b. The emotional outbursts and overly emotional responses seen in teen behavior are the result of the pace with which different regions of the brain mature
c. Changes in how adolescents experience emotion, make judgments about risky behavior and actually think are associated with changes in the brain
B. Piaget’s Period of Formal Operations
1. Formal Operational Thought
a. FORMAL OPERATIONS – the final stage of cognitive development that is characterized by the ability to reason hypothetically and think about abstract concepts
b. Adolescents also show an increasing ability to plan and to think ahead
2. Expanding Piaget’s View
a. Information processing functions also occur because they involve the development of increasingly effective strategies for thought
b. Not all individuals attain the abilities associated with formal thought
c. Moreover those who attain it do not use it consistently.
C. The Scope and Content of Adolescent Thought
1. Examining the World and the Family
a. Adolescents contrast their ideal parent with the real parent and the real parents have a difficult time meeting the adolescent’s expectations, therefore, bickering tends to escalate during early adolescence (“The Foundling Fable”)
b. Teens tend to battle for their independence through means of negotiation
c. Research indicates that those with parents who offered guidance but allowed their children to develop their own points of view, had the strongest sense of themselves as individuals
2. Adolescent Egocentrism
a. The self centered view assumes that other people are as fascinated with them as they are with themselves
b. IMAGINARY AUDIENCE – adolescents’ assumption that others are focusing a great deal of critical attention on them
c. PERSONAL FABLE – adolescents’ belief that they are so special that they should be exempt from the laws of nature, that nothing bad can happen to them, and they will live forever
3. Moral Development in Adolescence
a. Cognitive changes that occur during adolescence contribute to moral development as well
b. Some of the decisions have complex consequences, but the adolescent may not have the moral framework to deal with the pressures until well into adolescence or even early adulthood
c. Kohlberg specified that the ability to reason through moral dilemmas proceeds developmentally, from preconventional, through conventional, to postconventional thinking
d. Presenting a child with increasingly complex moral issues creates disequilibrium forcing the child to resolve contradictions
Adolescence: Physical & Cognitive Development
I. Adolescent Development in a Cultural and Historical Context
A. RIGHTS OF PASSAGE – symbolic events or rituals to mark life transitions, such as from childhood to adult status.
1. As social circumstances change, adolescents react and adapt to the social relationships and institutions around them.
2. The social context in which development occurs must be considered in understanding adolescence.
B. Adolescence in the United States Today
1. Adolescents are largely age segregated, that is, they interact mostly with other adolescents and much less with younger children or adults.
a. Developmental niche: the interaction of various aspects of development - such as everyday physical & social settings, parenting & family customs & overall environmental context – that determines the unique world of each individual.
b. This separates the adolescent from younger children and thus deprives them of the opportunity to guide and tutor those who are less knowledgeable.
c. This also separates them from adult culture and they lack the chance to learn jobs by working with adults
2. Adolescents are also largely economically dependent on their parents
3. Adolescents are deeply affected by, and develop strong opinions about, the events of the time in which they live.
4. Adolescents are influenced by images projected by the mass media
a. They accept tragedy, sexuality, and brutality in a matter of fact way
b. Adolescents tend to gravitate to the more grizzly, counterculture aspects of media programming.
II. Physical Development and Adaptation
A. Physical Growth and Change
1. The biological hallmarks of adolescence are a marked increase in the rate of growth, rapid development of the reproductive organs, and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics such as body hair, increased body fat and muscle, and enlargement and maturation of genitalia
2. Some changes are the same for both boys and girls – increased size, strength, and stamina
3. Most changes are sex specific
4. The physical changes are largely controlled by HORMONES, which are the bio-chemical substances that are secreted into the bloodstream in very tiny amounts by internal organs called endocrine glands; hormones exert an effect on particular target organs or tissues.
a. ANDROGENS are male sex hormones; TESTOSTERONE is the most important androgen
b. ESTROGEN and PROGESTERONE are both female sex hormones
c. The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are the two areas of the brain that maintain the balance of hormones.
i. The hypothalamus initiates growth and eventual reproductive capability
ii. The pituitary gland produces both growth hormones and some trophic hormones
5. The increase in hormone output is followed by the ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT, a period of rapid growth in physical size and strength, accompanied by changes in body proportion. Especially for girls, the growth spurt is a sign of entry into puberty.
B. PUBERTY is the attainment of sexual maturity in both males and females
1. A SECULAR TREND toward earlier sexual maturation has occurred.
2. Changes in girls
a. Breast development
b. Growth of pubic hair
c. Growth of underarm hair
d. Body growth
e. MENARCHE – the time of the first menstrual period
f. Increased output of oil and sweat producing glands
3. Changes in boys
a. Growth of testes and scrotal sac
b. Growth of pubic hair
c. Growth of facial and underarm hair
d. Body growth
e. Growth of penis
f. Change in voice
g. First ejaculation of semen
h. Increased output of oil and sweat producing glands
C. Body Image and Adjustment
1. MARGINAL GROUP is a group between cultures or on the fringe of a dominant culture that typically exhibits an intensified need to conform
2. Concerns about body image
a. ANOREXIA NERVOSA – an eating disorder in which a person is obsessed by thoughts of an unattainable image of perfect thinness; can result in death
b. BULIMIA NERVOSA – an eating disorder characterized by bingeing and purging
3. Early and late maturers
a. Girls mature on average 2 years earlier than boys
b. Early maturation is rarely a benefit for girls
i. One effect is that they have fewer opportunities to discuss their physical and emotional changes with friends
ii. They are significantly more likely to experience psychological distress over their maturity (e.g. lower self esteem).
c. Late maturation is rarely a benefit for boys.
i. They miss valuable childhood psychological development
ii. May be pressured into early sexual behavior
iii. More likely to experience psychological distress
III. Gender Identity and Sexual Practices
A. Four Decades of Changes in Sexual Practices
1. In the 1950’s and 1960’s most young people felt premarital sex was immoral
2. In the late 1960’s and 1970’s sexual attitudes changed partly because of the development of birth control
3. SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD is the view that sexual activity is more permissible for boys than for girls; this became less endorsed in the 1970’s
4. SAME SEX ORIENTATION is the sexual attraction toward members of one’s own sex
5. A sexual revolution was in full swing during the late 1970’s
6. In the 1980’s the revolution in changing sexual norms began to decline. People began to view the sexual attitudes of the 1970’s as irresponsible.
7. The 1990’s ushered in some stability in sexual attitudes.
8. Masturbation, homosexuality, cohabitation, premarital sex, “serial monogamy”, etc.
B. Factors that Influence Early Sexual Relationships
1. The age at which a person first becomes sexually active varies by both gender and ethnicity.
2. Sexual activity is also associated with the adolescent’s family situation
a. Adolescents from two parent families have less and later sexual experience than those from single parent families
b. Overly restrictive and overly permissive parenting are associated with earlier sexual activity
c. Education is also positively correlated with the age sexual activity occurs
C. Consequences of Adolescent Sexual Behavior
1. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
a. One of the most serious problems of adolescent sexual activity
b. About 20% of sexually active teenagers have an STD
2. Why teenagers become pregnant
a. 8% of teenaged girls become pregnant
b. 75% of girls and 82% of boys do not use contraception at first intercourse
c. Adolescents feel uncomfortable making demands of their partner in times of high excitement
d. Pregnancy rates have been decreasing in the last decade
3. The Effects of Early Parenthood
a. For the mother
i. Less likely to marry the father of their first child
ii. More likely to become divorced
iii. More likely to spend twice as much time as a single parent prior to age 30
iv. More likely to drop out of school
v. Less likely to earn a high school diploma by age 30
vi. More likely to work more hours at a lower rate of pay
b. For the father
i. Less likely to earn a high school diploma
ii. More likely to work in a blue collar ocupation
iii. More likely to experience lower income levels
iv. More likely to engage in delinquent and criminal behaviors
c. For the Child
i. More likely to be born premature and of low birth weight
ii. More likely to experience serious or life threatening medical conditions at birth
iii. Less likely to receive quality medical care and nutrition
iv. Less likely to receive necessary emotional support and cognitive stimulation
v. More likely to drop out of school
vi. More likely to become involved in delinquent and criminal behaviors
vii. More likely to have children before marriage
d. For society
i. Increased financial burden to taxpayers and extended families
ii. Additional strain on the resources of governmental programs and systems
IV. Cognitive Changes in Adolescence
A. Brain Development in Adolescence
1. Brain Imaging
a. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) technologies are providing researchers a clearer look at how brain cells develop
b. Children’s brains contain more nerve cells than the adult brain will retain
c. Important changes continue to occur within the brain long past childhood, adolescence and perhaps even into early adulthood
2. Changes in the Adolescent Brain
a. Gray matter levels at the age of 25
b. White matter increases until about the age of 40
c. The processes of pruning and increasing myelinization first start in the back of the brain and then occur in brain areas responsible for coordination and end in areas that control decision making and problem solving
3. The Influence of Hormones on the Brain
a. Hormones tend to target areas of the brain related to emotional regulation such as the amygdale
i. When the amygdale is triggered, emotions become volatile
ii. Stimulus seeking behavior and risk seeking tendencies also occur
b. The emotional outbursts and overly emotional responses seen in teen behavior are the result of the pace with which different regions of the brain mature
c. Changes in how adolescents experience emotion, make judgments about risky behavior and actually think are associated with changes in the brain
B. Piaget’s Period of Formal Operations
1. Formal Operational Thought
a. FORMAL OPERATIONS – the final stage of cognitive development that is characterized by the ability to reason hypothetically and think about abstract concepts
b. Adolescents also show an increasing ability to plan and to think ahead
2. Expanding Piaget’s View
a. Information processing functions also occur because they involve the development of increasingly effective strategies for thought
b. Not all individuals attain the abilities associated with formal thought
c. Moreover those who attain it do not use it consistently.
C. The Scope and Content of Adolescent Thought
1. Examining the World and the Family
a. Adolescents contrast their ideal parent with the real parent and the real parents have a difficult time meeting the adolescent’s expectations, therefore, bickering tends to escalate during early adolescence (“The Foundling Fable”)
b. Teens tend to battle for their independence through means of negotiation
c. Research indicates that those with parents who offered guidance but allowed their children to develop their own points of view, had the strongest sense of themselves as individuals
2. Adolescent Egocentrism
a. The self centered view assumes that other people are as fascinated with them as they are with themselves
b. IMAGINARY AUDIENCE – adolescents’ assumption that others are focusing a great deal of critical attention on them
c. PERSONAL FABLE – adolescents’ belief that they are so special that they should be exempt from the laws of nature, that nothing bad can happen to them, and they will live forever
3. Moral Development in Adolescence
a. Cognitive changes that occur during adolescence contribute to moral development as well
b. Some of the decisions have complex consequences, but the adolescent may not have the moral framework to deal with the pressures until well into adolescence or even early adulthood
c. Kohlberg specified that the ability to reason through moral dilemmas proceeds developmentally, from preconventional, through conventional, to postconventional thinking
d. Presenting a child with increasingly complex moral issues creates disequilibrium forcing the child to resolve contradictions
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