Human Growth & Development 2960
summer 2009
class code T 1 T 2 Qz 1 Qz 2 exrcse1 exrcse2 Pres'tion Total %
P33 44 44 4 4 96 77
O41 44 50 3 7 5 109 87
T11 48 44 3 6 4 105 84
S56 46 36 5 7 4 5 103 82
U77 48 46 5 8 4 5 116 93
W80 41 48 3 6 4 5 47 154 88
Z99 49 50 5 9 4 5 122 98
N01 42 38 4 5 4 5 98 78
Y08 51 50 3 3 5 112 90
X90 45 50 1 5 4 105 84
V16 46 48 2 4 100 80
M51 50 46 4 7 4 5 47 163 93
R21 42 34 5 6 4 5 47 143 82
L88 53 34 4 8 3 5 107 86
Tuesday, June 16, 2009
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outine Chapter 9: Middle Childhood
Chapter 9 - Middle Childhood: Personality & Sociocultural Development
I. Personality Development in an Expanding Social World
A. Three perspectives on middle childhood
1. Social learning view
2. Psychodynamic view
3. Cognitive developmental view
B. Self concept
1. How children define who they are
2. Less realistic and accurate in younger children
3. Frequently compare themselves with their peers and draw conclusion when seeing how they relate to other people
C. INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY – In Erikson’s theory, the third stage of development in which the child attempts to establish a sense of personal competence and mastery
D. SELF ESTEEM – one’s attitude toward oneself, which can range from positive to negative
II. Social Knowledge and Reasoning
A. The development of social cognition
1. SOCIAL COGNITION – thought, knowledge, and understanding that involve the social world
2. SOCIAL INFERENCE – an individual’s guesses and assumptions about what another person is feeling, thinking, or intending
3. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY – an individual’s obligations to family, friends, and to society
4. SOCIAL REGULATIONS – the customs and conventions that govern social interactions
B. The development of morality
1. MORALITY – a person’s ideas about fairness and justice and right and wrong
2. Moral realism and moral relativism
a. MORAL REALISM – Piaget’s term for the first stage of moral development; children believe in rules as real, indestructible things, not as abstract principles
b. MORAL RELATIVISM – Piaget’s term for the second stage of moral development; children realize rules are created and agreed upon cooperatively by individuals and can change if necessary
3. Kohlberg’s preconventional, conventional, and postconventional reasoning
a. Preconventional – stage 1 and 2 – obey rules in order to avoid punishment and obey rules to obtain rewards or to have favors returned
b. Conventional – stage 3 and 4 – conform to win the approval of others and conform to avoid disapproval or dislike of others
c. Postconventional – stage 5 and 6 – abide by laws of the land for the community’s welfare and abide by universal ethical principles, which may or may not conform to society’s laws or expectations
d. MORAL DILEMMAS – in Kohlberg’s research, stories in which individuals are asked to judge whether a character’s behavior was moral or immoral
4. Critiques of Kohlberg’s theory
a. Argue that his research investigates moral attitudes and not moral behavior
b. Moral development is not as predictable as his model suggests
c. MORAL ABSOLUTISM – any theory of morality that disregards cultural differences in moral beliefs
5. Gender differences in moral development
a. Kohlberg based his theory on male subjects
b. Women’s moral judgments are based on justice or caring
c. Boys are trained to strive for independence while girls are taught to nurture and care
III. Peer Relationships
A. Functions of friendship
1. Help children learn social concepts and social skills
2. Allow the child to develop self esteem
3. They can share their feelings, fears, and details of their lives
4. Allow someone to confide in
B. Developmental patterns in friendship
1. Selman’s stages of friendship development
2. Stage 1 – friendship is based on physical or geographic factors and children are self centered with no understanding of the perspectives of others
3. Stage 2 – friendship begins to be based on reciprocity and awareness of others’ feelings and friendship begins to be based on social actions and evaluation by each other
4. Stage 3 – friendship is based on genuine give and take and friends are seen as people who help each other; mutual evaluation of each other’s actions occurs and the concept of trust appears
5. Stage 4 – friendship is seen as a stable continuing relationship based on trust and children can observe the friendship relationship from the perspective of a third party
C. PEER GROUP – a group of three or more people of similar age who interact with each other and who share norms and goals
1. Developmental trends
a. Peer groups take on greater significance when children reach ages 10 to 12
b. Separation of the sexes becomes noticeable
c. Peer pressure becomes more effective & conformity to group norms becomes important
2. Peer group conformity
a. Some children become dependent on their peer group to meet their needs of belonging and social support
b. Children who conform most often are especially sensitive to social cues and tend to self monitor
c. Can influence and encourage academic motivation
d. Can also encourage antisocial acts (particularly in boys)
D. In groups, out groups, and prejudice
1. PREJUDICE – a negative attitude formed without adequate reason and usually directed toward people because of their membership in a certain group
2. DISCRIMINATION – treating others in a prejudiced manner
3. The development of ethnic identity
a. Develops during early childhood
b. Reflects the culture in which the child is raised
c. Complex concept that is only gradually acquired
d. Understanding group differences and what it means to be a member of the group requires social cognition that only comes with cognitive development
4. Popularity within the peer group
a. Popular children are likely to have good emotional control
b. They can cooperate and share
c. Academic performance and athletic ability become important in determining popularity
d. Children who are overly aggressive, timid, or different are less popular
e. Unpopular children can be encouraged to change behaviors that are objected to
IV. Family Influences in Middle Childhood
A. Parent child interactions and relationships
1. SELF REGULATED BEHAVIOR – behavior that is controlled and directed by the child rather than by parents, teachers, or other external forces
2. COREGULATION – the development or a sense of shared responsibility between parents and their children
3. Parents need to effectively monitor their children’s activities and behavior
4. Less stress economically, socially, and emotionally can make parenting easier
B. The changing nature of the family
1. Families and stress
a. When stress is chronic and extreme, children and adults may develop symptoms, such as nightmares, fearfulness, depression, anxiety, trouble with concentration, aggressive behavior, or blunted emotions
b. Stress is better dealt with when events do not pile up
c. When family and social support is available stress becomes more manageable
d. Some children are more resilient and are better able than others to deal with stress
e. RESILIENT CHIDREN – children who are able to overcome difficult environments to lead socially competent lives
2. Stress and single parenting
a. Single parents are especially vulnerable to stress because of lack of social support and economic resources
b. When stressed, they use less effective parenting techniques
c. The development of their children is more susceptible to harm
d. Social support and clear rules and expectations for children can help them deal more effectively
3. Children of divorce
a. Half of all marriages in the US end in divorce
b. Divorce is more traumatic for children when parents are hostile
c. Children are more likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties, anxiety, depression, and low self esteem when parents divorce
d. RECONSITITUTED CHILDREN – also known as stepfamily; a family where a mother or a father with children has remarried to produce a new family
I. Personality Development in an Expanding Social World
A. Three perspectives on middle childhood
1. Social learning view
2. Psychodynamic view
3. Cognitive developmental view
B. Self concept
1. How children define who they are
2. Less realistic and accurate in younger children
3. Frequently compare themselves with their peers and draw conclusion when seeing how they relate to other people
C. INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY – In Erikson’s theory, the third stage of development in which the child attempts to establish a sense of personal competence and mastery
D. SELF ESTEEM – one’s attitude toward oneself, which can range from positive to negative
II. Social Knowledge and Reasoning
A. The development of social cognition
1. SOCIAL COGNITION – thought, knowledge, and understanding that involve the social world
2. SOCIAL INFERENCE – an individual’s guesses and assumptions about what another person is feeling, thinking, or intending
3. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY – an individual’s obligations to family, friends, and to society
4. SOCIAL REGULATIONS – the customs and conventions that govern social interactions
B. The development of morality
1. MORALITY – a person’s ideas about fairness and justice and right and wrong
2. Moral realism and moral relativism
a. MORAL REALISM – Piaget’s term for the first stage of moral development; children believe in rules as real, indestructible things, not as abstract principles
b. MORAL RELATIVISM – Piaget’s term for the second stage of moral development; children realize rules are created and agreed upon cooperatively by individuals and can change if necessary
3. Kohlberg’s preconventional, conventional, and postconventional reasoning
a. Preconventional – stage 1 and 2 – obey rules in order to avoid punishment and obey rules to obtain rewards or to have favors returned
b. Conventional – stage 3 and 4 – conform to win the approval of others and conform to avoid disapproval or dislike of others
c. Postconventional – stage 5 and 6 – abide by laws of the land for the community’s welfare and abide by universal ethical principles, which may or may not conform to society’s laws or expectations
d. MORAL DILEMMAS – in Kohlberg’s research, stories in which individuals are asked to judge whether a character’s behavior was moral or immoral
4. Critiques of Kohlberg’s theory
a. Argue that his research investigates moral attitudes and not moral behavior
b. Moral development is not as predictable as his model suggests
c. MORAL ABSOLUTISM – any theory of morality that disregards cultural differences in moral beliefs
5. Gender differences in moral development
a. Kohlberg based his theory on male subjects
b. Women’s moral judgments are based on justice or caring
c. Boys are trained to strive for independence while girls are taught to nurture and care
III. Peer Relationships
A. Functions of friendship
1. Help children learn social concepts and social skills
2. Allow the child to develop self esteem
3. They can share their feelings, fears, and details of their lives
4. Allow someone to confide in
B. Developmental patterns in friendship
1. Selman’s stages of friendship development
2. Stage 1 – friendship is based on physical or geographic factors and children are self centered with no understanding of the perspectives of others
3. Stage 2 – friendship begins to be based on reciprocity and awareness of others’ feelings and friendship begins to be based on social actions and evaluation by each other
4. Stage 3 – friendship is based on genuine give and take and friends are seen as people who help each other; mutual evaluation of each other’s actions occurs and the concept of trust appears
5. Stage 4 – friendship is seen as a stable continuing relationship based on trust and children can observe the friendship relationship from the perspective of a third party
C. PEER GROUP – a group of three or more people of similar age who interact with each other and who share norms and goals
1. Developmental trends
a. Peer groups take on greater significance when children reach ages 10 to 12
b. Separation of the sexes becomes noticeable
c. Peer pressure becomes more effective & conformity to group norms becomes important
2. Peer group conformity
a. Some children become dependent on their peer group to meet their needs of belonging and social support
b. Children who conform most often are especially sensitive to social cues and tend to self monitor
c. Can influence and encourage academic motivation
d. Can also encourage antisocial acts (particularly in boys)
D. In groups, out groups, and prejudice
1. PREJUDICE – a negative attitude formed without adequate reason and usually directed toward people because of their membership in a certain group
2. DISCRIMINATION – treating others in a prejudiced manner
3. The development of ethnic identity
a. Develops during early childhood
b. Reflects the culture in which the child is raised
c. Complex concept that is only gradually acquired
d. Understanding group differences and what it means to be a member of the group requires social cognition that only comes with cognitive development
4. Popularity within the peer group
a. Popular children are likely to have good emotional control
b. They can cooperate and share
c. Academic performance and athletic ability become important in determining popularity
d. Children who are overly aggressive, timid, or different are less popular
e. Unpopular children can be encouraged to change behaviors that are objected to
IV. Family Influences in Middle Childhood
A. Parent child interactions and relationships
1. SELF REGULATED BEHAVIOR – behavior that is controlled and directed by the child rather than by parents, teachers, or other external forces
2. COREGULATION – the development or a sense of shared responsibility between parents and their children
3. Parents need to effectively monitor their children’s activities and behavior
4. Less stress economically, socially, and emotionally can make parenting easier
B. The changing nature of the family
1. Families and stress
a. When stress is chronic and extreme, children and adults may develop symptoms, such as nightmares, fearfulness, depression, anxiety, trouble with concentration, aggressive behavior, or blunted emotions
b. Stress is better dealt with when events do not pile up
c. When family and social support is available stress becomes more manageable
d. Some children are more resilient and are better able than others to deal with stress
e. RESILIENT CHIDREN – children who are able to overcome difficult environments to lead socially competent lives
2. Stress and single parenting
a. Single parents are especially vulnerable to stress because of lack of social support and economic resources
b. When stressed, they use less effective parenting techniques
c. The development of their children is more susceptible to harm
d. Social support and clear rules and expectations for children can help them deal more effectively
3. Children of divorce
a. Half of all marriages in the US end in divorce
b. Divorce is more traumatic for children when parents are hostile
c. Children are more likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties, anxiety, depression, and low self esteem when parents divorce
d. RECONSITITUTED CHILDREN – also known as stepfamily; a family where a mother or a father with children has remarried to produce a new family
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outine Chapter 8: Middle Childhood
Chapter Eight
Middle Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development
I. Physical and Motor Development
A. Physical growth and change
1. Not all children mature at the same rate
2. Girls tend to be shorter and lighter than boys until age 9
3. Boys and girls are equally strong during middle adulthood
4. There are substantial individual differences in body size and proportion
B. Internal changes
1. Brain development
a. Neural plasticity remains high
b. Surface area of frontal lobes increases slightly
c. Lateralization of the brain becomes more pronounced during school years
d. Corpus callosum become mature in both structure and function
2. Skeletal maturation
a. Periods of rapid growth may produce growing pains – episodes of stiffness and aching that are particularly common at night
b. Overly stringent physical training can cause injuries
C. Motor skills development
1. Gross motor skills
a. Locomotor skills are well in place and expanded upon
b. Children grow stronger and are more capable
c. Boys are more athletic than girls
2. Fine motor skills
a. Also develop rapidly during middle childhood
b. Complex skills like writing and hand/eye coordination improve with practice
c. Developing mastery over their bodies can help children gain feelings of competence and self worth
D. Health, fitness, accidents
1. Physical fitness
a. Defined as the optimal functioning of the heart, lungs, muscles, and blood vessels
b. Classes in school should aim to not only increase the children’s skill and overall level of physical activity, but also aim to establish healthy active patterns or behavior that will carry through into adulthood
2. Obesity
a. Obesity is associated with serious social and psychological consequences
b. Peers may reject or stereotype overweight children
c. This can result in a negative self image
3. Accidents and injuries
a. Motor vehicle accidents cause more child deaths than the six other major causes of death combined
b. Half of all childhood deaths result from injuries and accidents
c. As children grow, they engage in increasingly dangerous activities
II. Cognitive Development
A. Piaget and concrete operational thinking
1. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIOD – for Piaget, the third stage of cognitive development; begins at age 5 to 7 and allows the child to perform mental operations, such as conservation, decentration, and reversibility, on objects that are concrete and that can be directly experienced
2. Comparing preoperational and concrete operational thinking
a. preoperational
i. From age 2 to 5 or 7
ii. Thinking style is rigid and static, irreversible, focused on the here and now, centered on one dimension, egocentric, and focused on perceptual evidence
b. concrete operational
i. From age 5 to 7 to age 12
ii. Thinking style is reversible, flexible, not limited to the here and now, multidimensional, less egocentric, marked by the use of logical inferences, and marked by the search for cause and effect relationships
3. Piaget and education
a. Children’s learning can be accelerated through instruction, but Piaget believed that children are better off when they learn at their own pace
b. He also thought learning is best when children are intrinsically motivated rather than explicitly rewarded for success
B. Memory and metacognition
1. CONTROL PROCESSES – strategies and techniques that enhance memory
2. METACOGNITION – the intellectual process that enables people to monitor their thinking and memory; thinking about thinking
C. Language and literacy development
1. Language
a. Language learning is not complete
b. School assists and structures some of the child’s language development
c. Language used at schools more formal
d. Children’s habits of thinking and speaking are applied more generally to other areas of their daily life
2. Literacy
a. Skills in reading and writing
b. Natural outgrowths of the child’s growing language skills
c. The skills associated with oral and written language develop in infancy and improve over the years
D. Individual differences in intelligence
1. Measuring intelligence
a. STANFORD BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE – the revised version of Binet’s original intelligence test that is widely used in the United States today
b. INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT – an individual’s mental age divided by chronological age, which is multiplied by 100 to eliminate the decimal point
c. DEVIATION IQ – the approach used today that assigns an IQ score by comparing an individual’s test score with the scores of the other people in the same age range
2. The nature of intelligence
a. Gardner’s eight types of intelligence
i. Linguistic – sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meaning of words and the function of language
ii. Logical mathematical – facility for logical and numerical operations and complex reasoning
iii. Spatial – ability to perceive the visual spatial world accurately and to manipulate those perceptions
iv. Bodily kinesthetic – ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully
v. Musical – ability to produce and appreciate the characteristics of music, such as rhythm, pitch and timbre
vi. Interpersonal – ability to correctly interpret and appropriately respond to the moods, temperament, and motivations of the other people
vii. Intrapersonal – ability to correctly understand one’s own feelings and moods and to appreciate one’s own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence
viii. Naturalist – ability to classify plants, animals, and features of the natural environment and to make appropriate responses to each
b. Elements of Sternberg’s successful intelligence
i. Definition as the ability to achieve success in life according to one’s personal standards within one’s sociocultural context
ii. Types of processing skills contributing to successful intelligence
· Analytical
· Creative
· Practical
iii. Uses of processing skills for successful intelligence
· Adaptation to environments
· Shaping of environments
· Selection of environments
iv. Mechanisms for utilization of processing skills in successful intelligence
· Capitalization on strengths
· Correction of weaknesses
· Compensation for weaknesses
3. Cultural issues in intelligence testing
a. Minority groups tend to score lower on traditional intelligence tests
b. When children move to environments with more opportunity and when families emphasize school success, children’s academic performance generally improves
III. Learning and Thinking in School
A. New demands and expectations
1. The greater the gap between what is expected at home and what is expected in the classroom, the more difficult the child’s adjustment will be
2. Success depends on their family background, the school environment, and their own individuality
3. Children are expected to learn the complex social rules that govern the social life of the classroom
4. Teachers spend time on the following activities
a. Teaching facts or concepts
b. Giving direction for a particular lesson
c. Stating general rules of behavior
d. Correcting, disciplining, and praising children
e. Miscellaneous activities
B. Developing competent learners and critical thinkers
1. Greater emphasis on teaching learning and thinking skills
2. Remembering – recalling a fact, idea, or concept
3. Repeating – following a model or procedure
4. Reasoning – applying a specific instance to a general principle or concept
5. Reorganizing – extending knowledge to new contexts and devising original solutions to problems
6. Relating – connecting newly acquired knowledge with past or personal experience
7. Reflecting – exploring the though itself and how it occurred
C. Success in school
1. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION – an internalized need to persist toward success and excellence
2. Gender differences and school success
a. Girls tend to outperform boys in verbal skills and boys do better in quantitative and spatial tasks
b. Could be due to brain development
c. Social expectations influence their behavior
d. Mathematics and science have been traditionally viewed as male subjects while literature and language as female subjects
3. Parental influences on school success
a. Parents who provide support and guidance while emphasizing their expectations produce academically successful children
b. Children raised in overcrowded or unstable, conflict laden homes are at special risk for school failure
IV. Developmental disorders
A. MENTAL RETARDATION – disorder that is characterized by significantly subaverage intellectual functioning and self help skills, with onset prior to age 18
B. LEARNING DISORDERS – disorders that are associated with difficulty in acquiring some specific academic skills but not others despite normal intelligence and the absence of sensory or motor disabilities, may occur in areas such as reading, writing, or math
1. A reading disorder: dyslexia
a. Involves incorrectly perceiving letters and words
b. Children with dyslexia remain stuck in the early stages of reading
2. Helping children with learning disorders
a. More effective if it begins early in life
b. Includes carefully sequenced tutorial instruction
c. Improvement of the child’s confidence is necessary
C. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
1. ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER – disorder that involves the inability to keep focused on something long enough to learn it, which often is accompanied by poor impulse control
2. Treating children with ADHD
a. Respond to stimulant drugs
b. Also respond to modification of the environment to make it less confusing
c. Programs applied consistently by loving, concerned, responsible caregivers generally produce better outcomes
Middle Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development
I. Physical and Motor Development
A. Physical growth and change
1. Not all children mature at the same rate
2. Girls tend to be shorter and lighter than boys until age 9
3. Boys and girls are equally strong during middle adulthood
4. There are substantial individual differences in body size and proportion
B. Internal changes
1. Brain development
a. Neural plasticity remains high
b. Surface area of frontal lobes increases slightly
c. Lateralization of the brain becomes more pronounced during school years
d. Corpus callosum become mature in both structure and function
2. Skeletal maturation
a. Periods of rapid growth may produce growing pains – episodes of stiffness and aching that are particularly common at night
b. Overly stringent physical training can cause injuries
C. Motor skills development
1. Gross motor skills
a. Locomotor skills are well in place and expanded upon
b. Children grow stronger and are more capable
c. Boys are more athletic than girls
2. Fine motor skills
a. Also develop rapidly during middle childhood
b. Complex skills like writing and hand/eye coordination improve with practice
c. Developing mastery over their bodies can help children gain feelings of competence and self worth
D. Health, fitness, accidents
1. Physical fitness
a. Defined as the optimal functioning of the heart, lungs, muscles, and blood vessels
b. Classes in school should aim to not only increase the children’s skill and overall level of physical activity, but also aim to establish healthy active patterns or behavior that will carry through into adulthood
2. Obesity
a. Obesity is associated with serious social and psychological consequences
b. Peers may reject or stereotype overweight children
c. This can result in a negative self image
3. Accidents and injuries
a. Motor vehicle accidents cause more child deaths than the six other major causes of death combined
b. Half of all childhood deaths result from injuries and accidents
c. As children grow, they engage in increasingly dangerous activities
II. Cognitive Development
A. Piaget and concrete operational thinking
1. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIOD – for Piaget, the third stage of cognitive development; begins at age 5 to 7 and allows the child to perform mental operations, such as conservation, decentration, and reversibility, on objects that are concrete and that can be directly experienced
2. Comparing preoperational and concrete operational thinking
a. preoperational
i. From age 2 to 5 or 7
ii. Thinking style is rigid and static, irreversible, focused on the here and now, centered on one dimension, egocentric, and focused on perceptual evidence
b. concrete operational
i. From age 5 to 7 to age 12
ii. Thinking style is reversible, flexible, not limited to the here and now, multidimensional, less egocentric, marked by the use of logical inferences, and marked by the search for cause and effect relationships
3. Piaget and education
a. Children’s learning can be accelerated through instruction, but Piaget believed that children are better off when they learn at their own pace
b. He also thought learning is best when children are intrinsically motivated rather than explicitly rewarded for success
B. Memory and metacognition
1. CONTROL PROCESSES – strategies and techniques that enhance memory
2. METACOGNITION – the intellectual process that enables people to monitor their thinking and memory; thinking about thinking
C. Language and literacy development
1. Language
a. Language learning is not complete
b. School assists and structures some of the child’s language development
c. Language used at schools more formal
d. Children’s habits of thinking and speaking are applied more generally to other areas of their daily life
2. Literacy
a. Skills in reading and writing
b. Natural outgrowths of the child’s growing language skills
c. The skills associated with oral and written language develop in infancy and improve over the years
D. Individual differences in intelligence
1. Measuring intelligence
a. STANFORD BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE – the revised version of Binet’s original intelligence test that is widely used in the United States today
b. INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT – an individual’s mental age divided by chronological age, which is multiplied by 100 to eliminate the decimal point
c. DEVIATION IQ – the approach used today that assigns an IQ score by comparing an individual’s test score with the scores of the other people in the same age range
2. The nature of intelligence
a. Gardner’s eight types of intelligence
i. Linguistic – sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meaning of words and the function of language
ii. Logical mathematical – facility for logical and numerical operations and complex reasoning
iii. Spatial – ability to perceive the visual spatial world accurately and to manipulate those perceptions
iv. Bodily kinesthetic – ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully
v. Musical – ability to produce and appreciate the characteristics of music, such as rhythm, pitch and timbre
vi. Interpersonal – ability to correctly interpret and appropriately respond to the moods, temperament, and motivations of the other people
vii. Intrapersonal – ability to correctly understand one’s own feelings and moods and to appreciate one’s own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligence
viii. Naturalist – ability to classify plants, animals, and features of the natural environment and to make appropriate responses to each
b. Elements of Sternberg’s successful intelligence
i. Definition as the ability to achieve success in life according to one’s personal standards within one’s sociocultural context
ii. Types of processing skills contributing to successful intelligence
· Analytical
· Creative
· Practical
iii. Uses of processing skills for successful intelligence
· Adaptation to environments
· Shaping of environments
· Selection of environments
iv. Mechanisms for utilization of processing skills in successful intelligence
· Capitalization on strengths
· Correction of weaknesses
· Compensation for weaknesses
3. Cultural issues in intelligence testing
a. Minority groups tend to score lower on traditional intelligence tests
b. When children move to environments with more opportunity and when families emphasize school success, children’s academic performance generally improves
III. Learning and Thinking in School
A. New demands and expectations
1. The greater the gap between what is expected at home and what is expected in the classroom, the more difficult the child’s adjustment will be
2. Success depends on their family background, the school environment, and their own individuality
3. Children are expected to learn the complex social rules that govern the social life of the classroom
4. Teachers spend time on the following activities
a. Teaching facts or concepts
b. Giving direction for a particular lesson
c. Stating general rules of behavior
d. Correcting, disciplining, and praising children
e. Miscellaneous activities
B. Developing competent learners and critical thinkers
1. Greater emphasis on teaching learning and thinking skills
2. Remembering – recalling a fact, idea, or concept
3. Repeating – following a model or procedure
4. Reasoning – applying a specific instance to a general principle or concept
5. Reorganizing – extending knowledge to new contexts and devising original solutions to problems
6. Relating – connecting newly acquired knowledge with past or personal experience
7. Reflecting – exploring the though itself and how it occurred
C. Success in school
1. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION – an internalized need to persist toward success and excellence
2. Gender differences and school success
a. Girls tend to outperform boys in verbal skills and boys do better in quantitative and spatial tasks
b. Could be due to brain development
c. Social expectations influence their behavior
d. Mathematics and science have been traditionally viewed as male subjects while literature and language as female subjects
3. Parental influences on school success
a. Parents who provide support and guidance while emphasizing their expectations produce academically successful children
b. Children raised in overcrowded or unstable, conflict laden homes are at special risk for school failure
IV. Developmental disorders
A. MENTAL RETARDATION – disorder that is characterized by significantly subaverage intellectual functioning and self help skills, with onset prior to age 18
B. LEARNING DISORDERS – disorders that are associated with difficulty in acquiring some specific academic skills but not others despite normal intelligence and the absence of sensory or motor disabilities, may occur in areas such as reading, writing, or math
1. A reading disorder: dyslexia
a. Involves incorrectly perceiving letters and words
b. Children with dyslexia remain stuck in the early stages of reading
2. Helping children with learning disorders
a. More effective if it begins early in life
b. Includes carefully sequenced tutorial instruction
c. Improvement of the child’s confidence is necessary
C. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
1. ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER – disorder that involves the inability to keep focused on something long enough to learn it, which often is accompanied by poor impulse control
2. Treating children with ADHD
a. Respond to stimulant drugs
b. Also respond to modification of the environment to make it less confusing
c. Programs applied consistently by loving, concerned, responsible caregivers generally produce better outcomes
Wednesday, June 3, 2009
Greetings & Up-date 6/3/09
Greetings,
After starting this blog, I forgot to post the notes for last night's class (Tuesday 6/2/09) . This morning I posted those two chapters on Infancy & Toddlerhood (chaps. 4 & 5) and the two chapters on early childhood (chapters 6 & 7), which we start on Tuesday after the test. You can find them in the blog archives on the right.
We pretty much covered chapters 4 & 5 last night, but I'll go over a few more points tomorrow (Thurs. 6/4/09). I also promised to build in some time to work on group presentations tomorrow. And we may do some prep for next Tuesday's test.
Tuesday 6/9/09 we will test over the Chapters 3, 4, & 5 & will start on Early Childhood.
see you tomorrow evening.
-Dennis
After starting this blog, I forgot to post the notes for last night's class (Tuesday 6/2/09) . This morning I posted those two chapters on Infancy & Toddlerhood (chaps. 4 & 5) and the two chapters on early childhood (chapters 6 & 7), which we start on Tuesday after the test. You can find them in the blog archives on the right.
We pretty much covered chapters 4 & 5 last night, but I'll go over a few more points tomorrow (Thurs. 6/4/09). I also promised to build in some time to work on group presentations tomorrow. And we may do some prep for next Tuesday's test.
Tuesday 6/9/09 we will test over the Chapters 3, 4, & 5 & will start on Early Childhood.
see you tomorrow evening.
-Dennis
Chapter Seven
I. Coping with Feelings and Emotions
A. Fear and anxiety
1. FEAR – a state of arousal, tension, or apprehension caused by a specific and identifiable stimulus or situation
2. ANXIETY – a feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or fear that has a vague or unknown source
3. Causes of fear and anxiety
a. Sometimes the source of fear can be easily identified, but not always
b. Anxieties may develop out of proportion to the parent’s behavior
c. Anticipation of punishment can cause anxiety
d. Both fear and anxiety can be increased or created by imagination
4. Historical, cultural and developmental influences
a. Showing fear in western cultures is generally frowned on
b. Navajo culture believes that fear is healthy and normal
c. Fears reflect cognitive development
i. As fears become more abstract the child gains greater cognitive sophistication
ii. Fear of the dark, being alone, and fear of unfamiliar things now appear at earlier ages
5. Coping with fear and anxiety
a. Ignoring fear will not make it go away
b. It is best to gently and sympathetically encourage confrontation of a fear
c. Reducing unnecessary stress is the best way to reduce anxiety
d. DEFENSE MECHANISMS – the psychodynamic tricks that individuals use to disguise or reduce tensions that lead to anxiety
e. RATIONALIZATION – deluding oneself by creating reasonable, but false, explanations for events
B. Emotional regulation
1. The process of dealing with emotions
2. Shame and guilt
a. Shame is viewed as a more painful and intense emotion than guilt
b. Shame reflects negatively on one’s identity and is associated with the desire to undo aspects of the self
c. Guilt involves acknowledging that a behavior performed was wrong, and is associated with wanting to undo these negative behaviors
d. If children do not feel guilt when violating social norms, they are at risk of developing emotional problems
3. Learning to restrain emotions
a. Controlling the negative emotions is not the same as having them; they are an inevitable part of life
b. Learning to control negative feelings, not eliminate them, is the aim of healthy emotional regulation
c. Many cultures emphasize controlling positive emotions as well
4. Sensuality and sexual curiosity
a. Most cultures expect restraint when curiosity about the body develops
b. Sexual exploration is a natural and vital part of development
II. Aggression and Prosocial Behavior
A. Aggression
1. Types of aggression
a. hostile aggression – behavior intended to harm another person
b. instrumental aggression – behavior not intended to hurt another but does so accidentally
c. assertiveness – standing up for one’s rights
2. Punishment and modeling
a. Punishment can create a tendency to behave aggressively
b. Adults who use physical punishment to curb aggression are modeling aggressive behavior
c. The more often children are spanked, the more aggressive they are
3. Television and violence
a. TV viewing has become a powerful influence on children’s development
b. Television programming has become a major socializing force in the U.S.
c. Exposing children to large doses of causal violence on TV teaches them to think of aggression as a commonplace and acceptable way of dealing with frustration and anger
d. Violence is not the only problematic behavior that is modeled on TV
e. Television can also have positive influence on children’s thoughts and actions
f. Positive behaviors can be taught, and positive themes such as cooperation, sharing, friendship, and persistence can be interwoven into programs
B. Prosocial behavior
1. Prosocial behaviors are actions that are intended to benefit others
2. The roots of prosocial behavior
a. Because reward, punishment, and modeling affect aggression, it is natural to assume that they affect helping and sharing behavior
b. Encouraging role playing to help children think about how another person might behave can encourage prosocial behavior
c. Modeling prosocial behavior is a particularly powerful means of encouraging the behavior
III. Developmental Conflicts
A. The challenge for the 2 year old is to develop a sense of autonomy without triggering feelings of shame and doubt
B. Initiative versus guilt
1. INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT – according to Erikson’s theory, 3 to 6 year old children’s primary developmental conflict which focuses on the development of mastery and competence
2. The key to healthy development is to achieve a balance between initiative and guilt
3. Excessive guilt can dampen the child’s initiative
4. Children need to master their environment to feel competent and successful
5. Failure needs to be taken in stride to avoid thinking that failure will generalize to all the things that are attempted
6. A child who fails to develop a secure self concept will have difficulty establishing successful relationships with peers
IV. Peers, Play, and the Development of Social Competence
A. The role of imaginary companions
1. IMAGINARY COMPANIONS – invisible companions that children create and pretend are very real
2. 65% of children have imaginary companions
3. Those who do have been found to be more sociable and less shy
B. Cultural variations in play
1. Since major social roles and values differ from one culture to another, pretending to be certain roles differ by culture
2. Competitive games are virtually nonexistent in some cultures like the former Soviet Union; instead cooperative games are emphasized
3. In cultures where survival depends on motor skills, physical skill games are emphasized
C. Social competence and the development of social skills
1. SOCIAL COMPETENCE – the ability to initiate and maintain satisfying reciprocal relationships with peers
2. Socially competent children are more popular with their peers
3. Four components of social competence
a. Emotional regulation
b. Social knowledge
c. Social skills
d. Social disposition
4. Popular children are more cooperative and interactive and generally display more prosocial behaviors
5. Abused children are more likely to be rejected by their peers
6. Adults can teach social skills through modeling and encouragement, they can support opportunities for successful social experiences, and they can provide opportunities to play with other children
V. Understanding Self and Others
A. Social concepts and rules
1. INTERNALIZATION – the process of incorporating the values and oral standards of one’s society into one’s self concept, or understanding, of oneself
2. Social concepts in friendships
a. When cognitive and social development have progressed to the point where relationships can be built on mutual trust, friendships develop
b. Children demonstrate growing awareness of social concepts when they engage in arguments
c. As children move through early childhood, their understanding of social concepts expands
d. The ability to develop friendships indicates a growing understanding of themselves
B. Self concept
1. Self understanding is linked to the child’s understanding of the social world
2. As children develop, they increasingly define themselves in the context of their relationships with others
3. Self evaluations are often a direct reflection of what other people think of them
4. The early influence of others can have a powerful effect on the development of the basic elements of a person’s self concept
C. Self and gender
1. GENDER IDENTITY – the knowledge of who we are as male or female
2. SEX – the genetic and biological determination of whether we are male or female
3. GENDER – a conceptual understanding of being male or female, which is largely defined by culture
4. GENDER ROLES – roles we adopt that correspond to cultural definitions and expectations about being female or male
5. Male/Female differences during early childhood
a. Males are born slightly longer and heavier
b. Girls have slightly more mature skeletons
c. Girls develop slightly faster than boys
d. Many gender differences in sociability, self esteem, motivation to achieve, or even rote learning do not exist
e. Gender differences identified in early research appear to be shrinking as roles for men and women become more flexible
6. Androgyny
a. The view that all people are capable of developing a wide range of traits
b. ANDROGYNOUS PERSONALITY – personality type that includes characteristics that are both masculine and feminine traits
7. The development of gender identity
a. Children learn to label people as either boys or girls, then they develop definitions of what traits are associated with gender
b. GENDER ROLE STEREOTYPES – rigid and fixed ideas about what is appropriate male or female behavior
c. GENDER SCHEMES – the concepts that define how a person thinks about the behaviors and attitudes that are appropriate for males and females
d. GENDER CONSTANCY – the older child’s understanding that a person’s gender is stable and stays the same despite changes in superficial appearance
e. SELF SOCIALIZATION – process by which children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their gender and culture
VI. Family Dynamics
A. Parenting styles
1. Four parenting styles
a. AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS – parents who combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control; they encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family
b. AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS – parents who are highly controlling, show little warmth, and adhere to rigid rules; in families headed by authoritarian parents, children contribute little to the family’s decision making process
c. PERMISSIVE PARENTS – parents who exercise little control over their children but are high in warmth
d. INDIFFERENT PARENTS – parents who neither set limits nor display much affection or approval
2. Effects of different parenting styles
a. Authoritative parents have been found to fare well in most respects
b. Authoritarian parents tend to produce withdrawn, fearful children who are dependent, moody, unassertive, and irritable
c. Permissive parents produce rebellious, aggressive, self indulgent, impulsive, and socially inept children
d. Indifferent parents produce children who tend to show high expression of destructive impulses as well as delinquent behavior
B. Discipline and self control
1. Setting rules and limits and enforcing them
2. The goal is for children to establish their own self control of behavior and emotions
3. The negotiation of shared goals
a. SHARED GOALS – a common understanding between parents and children about how family interactions will be conducted and what their outcomes will be
b. Families that are unable to achieve shared goals must negotiate everything
C. Sibling dynamics
1. Siblings can be devotedly loyal, despise each other, or form ambivalent love/hate relationships
2. Birth order
a. Few if any important and consistent personality differences result from birth order
b. Any effects on intellectual ability is more likely associated with the role of the first born since this child benefits from all of the parent’s attention
c. Average IQ differences are small
D. Child maltreatment: abuse and neglect
1. CHILD MALTREATMENT – any form of child abuse, child neglect, or other domestic violence that affects the lives of children
2. Physical abuse and neglect
a. Physical abuse often occurs at the hands of the parents
b. Male abusers outnumber females 4 to 1
c. Younger children sustain more serious injuries than older ones
d. Neglect is the failure to provide for the child’s basic needs
e. Neglect is often associated with poverty
f. Can be intentional, but also results from lack of resources or knowledge about appropriate child care
3. Psychological abuse
a. Always accompanies physical abuse
b. Maltreatment damages the parenting relationships that should be nurturing and trustworthy; when this occurs, almost every aspect of psychological development is negatively affected
4. Effects of child abuse
a. All abuse can have long term effects
b. Self esteem can be irreparably damaged
c. Risk of psychological problems increase for adults who were abused as children
d. Children have trouble controlling their emotions and behavior
e. Abused children are not socialized in positive ways and they may learn defiance, manipulation, and other problem behaviors as ways of escaping maltreatment
5. Causes of child maltreatment
a. Parents who abuse their children may have learned abusive behavior from their own parents
b. They may have unrealistic expectations for their children
c. They may be experiencing stress from their life situation
d. They may be socially isolated
e. May have children who pose special challenges
f. Can be addressed through parent education programs that provide social support and teach non-abusive methods of discipline
g. Sometimes children must be removed from their homes to prevent continued abuse
I. Coping with Feelings and Emotions
A. Fear and anxiety
1. FEAR – a state of arousal, tension, or apprehension caused by a specific and identifiable stimulus or situation
2. ANXIETY – a feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or fear that has a vague or unknown source
3. Causes of fear and anxiety
a. Sometimes the source of fear can be easily identified, but not always
b. Anxieties may develop out of proportion to the parent’s behavior
c. Anticipation of punishment can cause anxiety
d. Both fear and anxiety can be increased or created by imagination
4. Historical, cultural and developmental influences
a. Showing fear in western cultures is generally frowned on
b. Navajo culture believes that fear is healthy and normal
c. Fears reflect cognitive development
i. As fears become more abstract the child gains greater cognitive sophistication
ii. Fear of the dark, being alone, and fear of unfamiliar things now appear at earlier ages
5. Coping with fear and anxiety
a. Ignoring fear will not make it go away
b. It is best to gently and sympathetically encourage confrontation of a fear
c. Reducing unnecessary stress is the best way to reduce anxiety
d. DEFENSE MECHANISMS – the psychodynamic tricks that individuals use to disguise or reduce tensions that lead to anxiety
e. RATIONALIZATION – deluding oneself by creating reasonable, but false, explanations for events
B. Emotional regulation
1. The process of dealing with emotions
2. Shame and guilt
a. Shame is viewed as a more painful and intense emotion than guilt
b. Shame reflects negatively on one’s identity and is associated with the desire to undo aspects of the self
c. Guilt involves acknowledging that a behavior performed was wrong, and is associated with wanting to undo these negative behaviors
d. If children do not feel guilt when violating social norms, they are at risk of developing emotional problems
3. Learning to restrain emotions
a. Controlling the negative emotions is not the same as having them; they are an inevitable part of life
b. Learning to control negative feelings, not eliminate them, is the aim of healthy emotional regulation
c. Many cultures emphasize controlling positive emotions as well
4. Sensuality and sexual curiosity
a. Most cultures expect restraint when curiosity about the body develops
b. Sexual exploration is a natural and vital part of development
II. Aggression and Prosocial Behavior
A. Aggression
1. Types of aggression
a. hostile aggression – behavior intended to harm another person
b. instrumental aggression – behavior not intended to hurt another but does so accidentally
c. assertiveness – standing up for one’s rights
2. Punishment and modeling
a. Punishment can create a tendency to behave aggressively
b. Adults who use physical punishment to curb aggression are modeling aggressive behavior
c. The more often children are spanked, the more aggressive they are
3. Television and violence
a. TV viewing has become a powerful influence on children’s development
b. Television programming has become a major socializing force in the U.S.
c. Exposing children to large doses of causal violence on TV teaches them to think of aggression as a commonplace and acceptable way of dealing with frustration and anger
d. Violence is not the only problematic behavior that is modeled on TV
e. Television can also have positive influence on children’s thoughts and actions
f. Positive behaviors can be taught, and positive themes such as cooperation, sharing, friendship, and persistence can be interwoven into programs
B. Prosocial behavior
1. Prosocial behaviors are actions that are intended to benefit others
2. The roots of prosocial behavior
a. Because reward, punishment, and modeling affect aggression, it is natural to assume that they affect helping and sharing behavior
b. Encouraging role playing to help children think about how another person might behave can encourage prosocial behavior
c. Modeling prosocial behavior is a particularly powerful means of encouraging the behavior
III. Developmental Conflicts
A. The challenge for the 2 year old is to develop a sense of autonomy without triggering feelings of shame and doubt
B. Initiative versus guilt
1. INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT – according to Erikson’s theory, 3 to 6 year old children’s primary developmental conflict which focuses on the development of mastery and competence
2. The key to healthy development is to achieve a balance between initiative and guilt
3. Excessive guilt can dampen the child’s initiative
4. Children need to master their environment to feel competent and successful
5. Failure needs to be taken in stride to avoid thinking that failure will generalize to all the things that are attempted
6. A child who fails to develop a secure self concept will have difficulty establishing successful relationships with peers
IV. Peers, Play, and the Development of Social Competence
A. The role of imaginary companions
1. IMAGINARY COMPANIONS – invisible companions that children create and pretend are very real
2. 65% of children have imaginary companions
3. Those who do have been found to be more sociable and less shy
B. Cultural variations in play
1. Since major social roles and values differ from one culture to another, pretending to be certain roles differ by culture
2. Competitive games are virtually nonexistent in some cultures like the former Soviet Union; instead cooperative games are emphasized
3. In cultures where survival depends on motor skills, physical skill games are emphasized
C. Social competence and the development of social skills
1. SOCIAL COMPETENCE – the ability to initiate and maintain satisfying reciprocal relationships with peers
2. Socially competent children are more popular with their peers
3. Four components of social competence
a. Emotional regulation
b. Social knowledge
c. Social skills
d. Social disposition
4. Popular children are more cooperative and interactive and generally display more prosocial behaviors
5. Abused children are more likely to be rejected by their peers
6. Adults can teach social skills through modeling and encouragement, they can support opportunities for successful social experiences, and they can provide opportunities to play with other children
V. Understanding Self and Others
A. Social concepts and rules
1. INTERNALIZATION – the process of incorporating the values and oral standards of one’s society into one’s self concept, or understanding, of oneself
2. Social concepts in friendships
a. When cognitive and social development have progressed to the point where relationships can be built on mutual trust, friendships develop
b. Children demonstrate growing awareness of social concepts when they engage in arguments
c. As children move through early childhood, their understanding of social concepts expands
d. The ability to develop friendships indicates a growing understanding of themselves
B. Self concept
1. Self understanding is linked to the child’s understanding of the social world
2. As children develop, they increasingly define themselves in the context of their relationships with others
3. Self evaluations are often a direct reflection of what other people think of them
4. The early influence of others can have a powerful effect on the development of the basic elements of a person’s self concept
C. Self and gender
1. GENDER IDENTITY – the knowledge of who we are as male or female
2. SEX – the genetic and biological determination of whether we are male or female
3. GENDER – a conceptual understanding of being male or female, which is largely defined by culture
4. GENDER ROLES – roles we adopt that correspond to cultural definitions and expectations about being female or male
5. Male/Female differences during early childhood
a. Males are born slightly longer and heavier
b. Girls have slightly more mature skeletons
c. Girls develop slightly faster than boys
d. Many gender differences in sociability, self esteem, motivation to achieve, or even rote learning do not exist
e. Gender differences identified in early research appear to be shrinking as roles for men and women become more flexible
6. Androgyny
a. The view that all people are capable of developing a wide range of traits
b. ANDROGYNOUS PERSONALITY – personality type that includes characteristics that are both masculine and feminine traits
7. The development of gender identity
a. Children learn to label people as either boys or girls, then they develop definitions of what traits are associated with gender
b. GENDER ROLE STEREOTYPES – rigid and fixed ideas about what is appropriate male or female behavior
c. GENDER SCHEMES – the concepts that define how a person thinks about the behaviors and attitudes that are appropriate for males and females
d. GENDER CONSTANCY – the older child’s understanding that a person’s gender is stable and stays the same despite changes in superficial appearance
e. SELF SOCIALIZATION – process by which children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their gender and culture
VI. Family Dynamics
A. Parenting styles
1. Four parenting styles
a. AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS – parents who combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control; they encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family
b. AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS – parents who are highly controlling, show little warmth, and adhere to rigid rules; in families headed by authoritarian parents, children contribute little to the family’s decision making process
c. PERMISSIVE PARENTS – parents who exercise little control over their children but are high in warmth
d. INDIFFERENT PARENTS – parents who neither set limits nor display much affection or approval
2. Effects of different parenting styles
a. Authoritative parents have been found to fare well in most respects
b. Authoritarian parents tend to produce withdrawn, fearful children who are dependent, moody, unassertive, and irritable
c. Permissive parents produce rebellious, aggressive, self indulgent, impulsive, and socially inept children
d. Indifferent parents produce children who tend to show high expression of destructive impulses as well as delinquent behavior
B. Discipline and self control
1. Setting rules and limits and enforcing them
2. The goal is for children to establish their own self control of behavior and emotions
3. The negotiation of shared goals
a. SHARED GOALS – a common understanding between parents and children about how family interactions will be conducted and what their outcomes will be
b. Families that are unable to achieve shared goals must negotiate everything
C. Sibling dynamics
1. Siblings can be devotedly loyal, despise each other, or form ambivalent love/hate relationships
2. Birth order
a. Few if any important and consistent personality differences result from birth order
b. Any effects on intellectual ability is more likely associated with the role of the first born since this child benefits from all of the parent’s attention
c. Average IQ differences are small
D. Child maltreatment: abuse and neglect
1. CHILD MALTREATMENT – any form of child abuse, child neglect, or other domestic violence that affects the lives of children
2. Physical abuse and neglect
a. Physical abuse often occurs at the hands of the parents
b. Male abusers outnumber females 4 to 1
c. Younger children sustain more serious injuries than older ones
d. Neglect is the failure to provide for the child’s basic needs
e. Neglect is often associated with poverty
f. Can be intentional, but also results from lack of resources or knowledge about appropriate child care
3. Psychological abuse
a. Always accompanies physical abuse
b. Maltreatment damages the parenting relationships that should be nurturing and trustworthy; when this occurs, almost every aspect of psychological development is negatively affected
4. Effects of child abuse
a. All abuse can have long term effects
b. Self esteem can be irreparably damaged
c. Risk of psychological problems increase for adults who were abused as children
d. Children have trouble controlling their emotions and behavior
e. Abused children are not socialized in positive ways and they may learn defiance, manipulation, and other problem behaviors as ways of escaping maltreatment
5. Causes of child maltreatment
a. Parents who abuse their children may have learned abusive behavior from their own parents
b. They may have unrealistic expectations for their children
c. They may be experiencing stress from their life situation
d. They may be socially isolated
e. May have children who pose special challenges
f. Can be addressed through parent education programs that provide social support and teach non-abusive methods of discipline
g. Sometimes children must be removed from their homes to prevent continued abuse
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outline: Chapter 6
Chapter Six
I. Physical Development
A. Changes in the body
1. Grow almost 3 inches
2. Gain about 4 pounds 8 ounces
3. Ossification – when soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone
4. Body proportions
a. Head no longer takes up ¼ of body
b. Children lose balance due to higher proportion of weight in the upper body
B. Brain development
1. MYELINATION – the formation of the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates neurons in the central nervous system pathways. This sheath increases the speed of transmission and the precision of the nervous system
2. LATERALIZATION – the process where specific skills and competencies become localized in either the left or right cerebral hemisphere
a. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa
b. Language is primarily controlled by the left hemisphere in right handed people
3. Handedness
a. Preference for one hand over the other
b. May have a genetic basis
c. 90% are right handed
d. In left handed people, language is shared by both sides of the brain
4. Brain development and early intervention
a. Since early development sets the stage for later maturation, intervention to remedy problems needs to occur as soon as possible
b. Quality interventions that occur after age 3 still help even though they are implemented after the critical period for brain development
c. Human development: an interactive and individual approach
1. Brain development and other aspects interact with each other
2. Malnutrition can directly produce brain damage
3. A single aspect of development can never be separated from the development of the whole child
II. Motor Skills Development
A. Gross motor skills
1. AUTOMATICITY – the ability to perform motor behaviors without consciously thinking about them
2. FUNCTIONAL SUBORDINATION – the integration of a number of separate simple actions or schemes into a more complex pattern of behavior
B. Fine motor skills
1. Require the coordinated and dexterous use of hand, fingers, and thumb
2. Age 2: children have refined grasping schemes
3. Age 3: children integrate and coordinate these skills with other behaviors
4. Age 4: children can carry on a conversation while manipulating something with their hands
5. They become increasingly competent in taking care of themselves and carrying out their daily activities
C. Learning and motor skills
1. Readiness – acquiring or developing the necessary prerequisite skills to perform an action
2. Practice – repeating a skill in order to perfect it
3. Attention - developing the ability to maintain focus on the skill at hand
4. Competence feedback – gathering information about how well a skill is being performed to refine the skill and ; internalizing pleasure when an action is completed successfully
5. EXTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed to obtain explicit rewards or to avoid explicit adverse events
6. INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed for its own sake, with no particular goal or explicit reward
III. Cognitive Development
A. An overview of preoperational thinking
1. PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD – according to Piaget, the developmental stage associated with early childhood
2. Children explore their surroundings and comprehend new information based on their current level and ways of understanding
3. They can either accommodate or assimilate new information
B. Preoperational substages and thought
1. PRECONCEPTUAL PERIOD – for Piaget, the first part of the preoperational period, which is highlighted by the increasingly complex use of symbols and symbolic play
2. INTUITIVE PERIOD – for Piaget, the second part of the preoperational period, during which children begin to understand causation, as well as to undertake simple mental operations and form a more realistic view of their world
3. EGOCENTRISM – a self centered view of the world where children tend to see things in terms of their personal point of view and fail to take others’ perspectives
4. SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION – the use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts; marks the emergence of the preoperational period
C. Limitations of preoperational thinking
1. Despite development of symbolic representation, children have a long way to go before becoming logical thinkers
2. Limitations include concreteness, irreversibility, egocentrism, centration, and difficulties with concepts of time, space and sequence
D. CONSERVATION – the understanding that changing the shape or appearance of objects does not change their mass, volume, or number
1. Conservation of mass – a child cannot understand that changing the shape of something does not alter its mass
2. Conservation of number – child cannot recognize that number is associated with the actual amount of something and not the space the objects take up
3. Conservation of volume
a. Centration – the child attends to only one dimension, such as height or length
b. Irreversibility – the child cannot reverse steps to change an object back to its previous state
E. Evaluating Piaget’s theory
1. Children’s thinking is not as limited as he described
2. When problems are framed in contexts that are more familiar, they can solve problems using more advanced logic
3. He underemphasized the role of social aspects in learning
F. Beyond Piaget: social perspectives
1. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
2. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT – Vygotsky’s concept that children’s cognitive growth develops through participation in activities slightly beyond their competence with the help of adults or older children
3. SCAFFOLDING – the progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate
G. The role of memory
1. Memory processes
a. Information processing perspective conceptualizes human memory as operating much like a computer
b. Encoding occurs in the working memory
c. Information important enough to be stored is placed in the long term memory
2. Recognition and recall
a. RECOGNITION – the ability to correctly identify objects or situations previously experienced when they appear again
b. RECALL – the ability to retrieve long term information and memories with or without cues or prompts
3. Developing memory strategies
a. Assumed that young children’s difficulties with recall are attributable to poor strategies for encoding and retrieval
b. Children do not spontaneously organize or rehearse information like older children and adults do
c. Studies demonstrate that young children can learn strategies beyond their current repertoire
d. Children remember best when words and tasks are meaningful and embedded in the ongoing settings of activities
4. Memory for scripts
a. Children can repeat series of events in the same order they learned them
b. Only after becoming familiar with the event can they reorder the steps
IV. Language Development
A. Words and concepts
1. Most children can use 1000 words by age 3
2. By age 6 they know about 2600 words and can understand more than 20,000
3. Understanding of concepts is often incomplete
4. They may understand “more” but not understand “less”
B. Expanding grammar
1. It appears that children extract the rules of grammar through an active process of listening to the speech of others
2. Early on children imitate the sentence patterns they hear
3. OVERREGULARIZE – to incorrectly generalize language rules to cases that are exceptions; words typically done by preschool children who are rapidly expanding their vocabularies
C. Mastering the subtleties of speech
1. PRIVATE SPEECH – talking aloud to oneself
a. A means of practicing how words and things they represent are linked
b. Corresponds to the developing thought processes in a child’s mind
2. Public speech and pragmatics
a. COLLECTIVE MONOLOGUES – children’s conversations that include taking turns talking, but not necessarily about the same topic
b. PRAGMATICS – the social and cultural aspects of language use
3. Cross cultural perspective of the pragmatics of speech
a. Pragmatics of speech differ throughout the world
b. U.S. parents focus on satisfying their children’s desires and intentions
c. German mothers focus more on necessity
d. U.S. parents focus more on personal actions
e. U.K. parents focus more on complying with norms
D. The influence of parents’ language use
1. Language teaches children about categories and symbols, how to translate the complexities of the world into ideas and words, and how standards are interpreted and applied
2. These tools are a scaffold used in understanding the world
3. Language and gender
a. Assumptions about gender are embedded into thinking and therefore reflected in language
b. This causes people to talk differently to male and female children
E. Multicultural aspects of language development
1. Bilingualism – learning two languages
2. Children who are bilingual in their earliest years show little confusion between the 2 languages
3. Cognitive demand of learning 2 languages is manageable for most young children
4. Linguistically, culturally, and probably cognitively, it is an advantage to be bilingual
V. Play and Learning
A. Play is thought of as the child’s work
B. It is the unique way of experiencing the world by practicing and improving skills
C. Play and cognitive development
1. Exploring physical objects
a. Allows them to learn the properties and physical laws that govern objects
b. Greater knowledge gives them increasingly higher levels of understanding and competence
c. They learn to compare and classify events and objects
2. Play and egocentrism
a. PARALLEL PLAY – the play engaged in by 2 year olds, which is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing
b. By age 3 or 5 children become less egocentric & are better able to cooperate in play
c. Social maturity is relative; some children advance quicker than others
3. Dramatic play and social knowledge
a. DRAMATIC PLAY – play that develops at about age 3 or 4, that is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing
b. Children are better able to understand another’s perspective
c. They also have a clearer definition of self
d. Allows children to experiment with different roles
e. Promotes social and personality development
4. The role of peers
a. Mixed age peer groups offer older children the opportunity to teach and care for younger children
b. The younger children can imitate and practice role relations with older children
c. Can encourage development of new ways of thinking and problem solving for both the older and younger children
I. Physical Development
A. Changes in the body
1. Grow almost 3 inches
2. Gain about 4 pounds 8 ounces
3. Ossification – when soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone
4. Body proportions
a. Head no longer takes up ¼ of body
b. Children lose balance due to higher proportion of weight in the upper body
B. Brain development
1. MYELINATION – the formation of the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates neurons in the central nervous system pathways. This sheath increases the speed of transmission and the precision of the nervous system
2. LATERALIZATION – the process where specific skills and competencies become localized in either the left or right cerebral hemisphere
a. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa
b. Language is primarily controlled by the left hemisphere in right handed people
3. Handedness
a. Preference for one hand over the other
b. May have a genetic basis
c. 90% are right handed
d. In left handed people, language is shared by both sides of the brain
4. Brain development and early intervention
a. Since early development sets the stage for later maturation, intervention to remedy problems needs to occur as soon as possible
b. Quality interventions that occur after age 3 still help even though they are implemented after the critical period for brain development
c. Human development: an interactive and individual approach
1. Brain development and other aspects interact with each other
2. Malnutrition can directly produce brain damage
3. A single aspect of development can never be separated from the development of the whole child
II. Motor Skills Development
A. Gross motor skills
1. AUTOMATICITY – the ability to perform motor behaviors without consciously thinking about them
2. FUNCTIONAL SUBORDINATION – the integration of a number of separate simple actions or schemes into a more complex pattern of behavior
B. Fine motor skills
1. Require the coordinated and dexterous use of hand, fingers, and thumb
2. Age 2: children have refined grasping schemes
3. Age 3: children integrate and coordinate these skills with other behaviors
4. Age 4: children can carry on a conversation while manipulating something with their hands
5. They become increasingly competent in taking care of themselves and carrying out their daily activities
C. Learning and motor skills
1. Readiness – acquiring or developing the necessary prerequisite skills to perform an action
2. Practice – repeating a skill in order to perfect it
3. Attention - developing the ability to maintain focus on the skill at hand
4. Competence feedback – gathering information about how well a skill is being performed to refine the skill and ; internalizing pleasure when an action is completed successfully
5. EXTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed to obtain explicit rewards or to avoid explicit adverse events
6. INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed for its own sake, with no particular goal or explicit reward
III. Cognitive Development
A. An overview of preoperational thinking
1. PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD – according to Piaget, the developmental stage associated with early childhood
2. Children explore their surroundings and comprehend new information based on their current level and ways of understanding
3. They can either accommodate or assimilate new information
B. Preoperational substages and thought
1. PRECONCEPTUAL PERIOD – for Piaget, the first part of the preoperational period, which is highlighted by the increasingly complex use of symbols and symbolic play
2. INTUITIVE PERIOD – for Piaget, the second part of the preoperational period, during which children begin to understand causation, as well as to undertake simple mental operations and form a more realistic view of their world
3. EGOCENTRISM – a self centered view of the world where children tend to see things in terms of their personal point of view and fail to take others’ perspectives
4. SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION – the use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts; marks the emergence of the preoperational period
C. Limitations of preoperational thinking
1. Despite development of symbolic representation, children have a long way to go before becoming logical thinkers
2. Limitations include concreteness, irreversibility, egocentrism, centration, and difficulties with concepts of time, space and sequence
D. CONSERVATION – the understanding that changing the shape or appearance of objects does not change their mass, volume, or number
1. Conservation of mass – a child cannot understand that changing the shape of something does not alter its mass
2. Conservation of number – child cannot recognize that number is associated with the actual amount of something and not the space the objects take up
3. Conservation of volume
a. Centration – the child attends to only one dimension, such as height or length
b. Irreversibility – the child cannot reverse steps to change an object back to its previous state
E. Evaluating Piaget’s theory
1. Children’s thinking is not as limited as he described
2. When problems are framed in contexts that are more familiar, they can solve problems using more advanced logic
3. He underemphasized the role of social aspects in learning
F. Beyond Piaget: social perspectives
1. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
2. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT – Vygotsky’s concept that children’s cognitive growth develops through participation in activities slightly beyond their competence with the help of adults or older children
3. SCAFFOLDING – the progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate
G. The role of memory
1. Memory processes
a. Information processing perspective conceptualizes human memory as operating much like a computer
b. Encoding occurs in the working memory
c. Information important enough to be stored is placed in the long term memory
2. Recognition and recall
a. RECOGNITION – the ability to correctly identify objects or situations previously experienced when they appear again
b. RECALL – the ability to retrieve long term information and memories with or without cues or prompts
3. Developing memory strategies
a. Assumed that young children’s difficulties with recall are attributable to poor strategies for encoding and retrieval
b. Children do not spontaneously organize or rehearse information like older children and adults do
c. Studies demonstrate that young children can learn strategies beyond their current repertoire
d. Children remember best when words and tasks are meaningful and embedded in the ongoing settings of activities
4. Memory for scripts
a. Children can repeat series of events in the same order they learned them
b. Only after becoming familiar with the event can they reorder the steps
IV. Language Development
A. Words and concepts
1. Most children can use 1000 words by age 3
2. By age 6 they know about 2600 words and can understand more than 20,000
3. Understanding of concepts is often incomplete
4. They may understand “more” but not understand “less”
B. Expanding grammar
1. It appears that children extract the rules of grammar through an active process of listening to the speech of others
2. Early on children imitate the sentence patterns they hear
3. OVERREGULARIZE – to incorrectly generalize language rules to cases that are exceptions; words typically done by preschool children who are rapidly expanding their vocabularies
C. Mastering the subtleties of speech
1. PRIVATE SPEECH – talking aloud to oneself
a. A means of practicing how words and things they represent are linked
b. Corresponds to the developing thought processes in a child’s mind
2. Public speech and pragmatics
a. COLLECTIVE MONOLOGUES – children’s conversations that include taking turns talking, but not necessarily about the same topic
b. PRAGMATICS – the social and cultural aspects of language use
3. Cross cultural perspective of the pragmatics of speech
a. Pragmatics of speech differ throughout the world
b. U.S. parents focus on satisfying their children’s desires and intentions
c. German mothers focus more on necessity
d. U.S. parents focus more on personal actions
e. U.K. parents focus more on complying with norms
D. The influence of parents’ language use
1. Language teaches children about categories and symbols, how to translate the complexities of the world into ideas and words, and how standards are interpreted and applied
2. These tools are a scaffold used in understanding the world
3. Language and gender
a. Assumptions about gender are embedded into thinking and therefore reflected in language
b. This causes people to talk differently to male and female children
E. Multicultural aspects of language development
1. Bilingualism – learning two languages
2. Children who are bilingual in their earliest years show little confusion between the 2 languages
3. Cognitive demand of learning 2 languages is manageable for most young children
4. Linguistically, culturally, and probably cognitively, it is an advantage to be bilingual
V. Play and Learning
A. Play is thought of as the child’s work
B. It is the unique way of experiencing the world by practicing and improving skills
C. Play and cognitive development
1. Exploring physical objects
a. Allows them to learn the properties and physical laws that govern objects
b. Greater knowledge gives them increasingly higher levels of understanding and competence
c. They learn to compare and classify events and objects
2. Play and egocentrism
a. PARALLEL PLAY – the play engaged in by 2 year olds, which is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing
b. By age 3 or 5 children become less egocentric & are better able to cooperate in play
c. Social maturity is relative; some children advance quicker than others
3. Dramatic play and social knowledge
a. DRAMATIC PLAY – play that develops at about age 3 or 4, that is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing
b. Children are better able to understand another’s perspective
c. They also have a clearer definition of self
d. Allows children to experiment with different roles
e. Promotes social and personality development
4. The role of peers
a. Mixed age peer groups offer older children the opportunity to teach and care for younger children
b. The younger children can imitate and practice role relations with older children
c. Can encourage development of new ways of thinking and problem solving for both the older and younger children
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outline: Chapter 5
Chapter 5
Infants & Toddlers: Personality & Sociocultural Development
Define Terms
Personality- characteristic beliefs, attitudes, and ways of interacting with others
Temperament- “certain behavioral styles” neonates “come into the world with” Three categories: 1.) Easy 2.) Difficult 3.) Slow to warm up
Attachment – “the first relationship”; the relationship between the infant and the mother (or primary care-giver) that is characterized by interdependence, intense mutual feelings, and strong emotional ties. Behaviors that promote nearness to a specific person.
Erickson: Trust vs. mistrust - birth to 1
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt – 1 to 3
Freud: Oral: birth to 12 t0 18 mos.
Anal: from 12 to 18 mos. though about age 3
Greenspans “Milestones in Early Emotional Development”
Birth to 3 mos. – Self-Regulation & interest in world
2 mos. to 7 mos. – Falling in Love
3 to 10 mos. – Intentional Communication
9 to 18 mos. – Organized Sense of Self
18 to 36 mos. – Emotional Ideas
30 to 48 mos. – Emotional Thinking; Fantasy, Reality, Self-Esteem
How important is attachment?
Bowlby & Ainsworth: the interaction & relationship that evolves from the attachment process during the first 2 years are the basis for all future relationships. Parallels Erickson’s theories.
Other research on Attachment:
“Still-face” experiment –
Konrad Lorenz geese – no clear evidence of a “critical period” for human attachment to develop. First few days parents & infants are especially receptive. Some studies say first 45 minutes are important. Attachment must happen by 8 mos. for normal development to continue.
Harlow’s monkeys – contact comfort
“7-months Anxiety” correlate with cognitive development
Stranger Anxiety
Separation Anxiety
Quality of Attachment: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Experiments; 2 basic kinds of attachment:
1. Secure Attachment: 60% to 70% U.S. Middle Class
2.Insecure Attachment: Rest [roughly a third].
-Resistant Attachment – anger, avoidance
-Avoidant Attachment – indifference
-Disorganized/disoriented Attach-confusion, contradictory behavior
All 3 associated with unresponsive, indifferent & resentful care giving
Longitudinal Studies found dramatic differences in personality & social development as early as 18 mos.
Supportive relationship between care-giver and infant promotes active exploration and early mastery of object play & social environment
Responsive Care-Giving: [Ainsworth: strong attachment = highly responsive relationship]
Sensitive to baby’s signals & overall responsiveness
More responsive to cries
More affectionate
More tender
More close bodily contact
Responsive to physical needs
Responsive to distress Signals
Responsive to attempts at communication
Mutuality / interactive synchrony [sin kro nee]
Mutual Dialogues – start off “listening” to one another
Abuse & Neglect
Failure to Thrive
At Risk for physical, emotional & cognitive impairments
Family influences
Fathers
Siblings
Grandparents
PERSONALITY in 2nd YEAR
Trust & Security
Autonomy
Discipline
Toilet training
Pro-social behavior
- Empathy
- Cooperation – almost no 12mo old; infrequent & almost “accidental” at 18 mos.; with coaxing almost all 24 mos.
-Sharing
Sense of Self
Self-concept: perception of personal identity
Self-conscious emotions
-Pride
-Shame
-Guilt
-Embarrassment
Awareness of sex roles around 21 months
Language filled with “me & mine”
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