Greetings,
After starting this blog, I forgot to post the notes for last night's class (Tuesday 6/2/09) . This morning I posted those two chapters on Infancy & Toddlerhood (chaps. 4 & 5) and the two chapters on early childhood (chapters 6 & 7), which we start on Tuesday after the test. You can find them in the blog archives on the right.
We pretty much covered chapters 4 & 5 last night, but I'll go over a few more points tomorrow (Thurs. 6/4/09). I also promised to build in some time to work on group presentations tomorrow. And we may do some prep for next Tuesday's test.
Tuesday 6/9/09 we will test over the Chapters 3, 4, & 5 & will start on Early Childhood.
see you tomorrow evening.
-Dennis
Wednesday, June 3, 2009
Chapter Seven
I. Coping with Feelings and Emotions
A. Fear and anxiety
1. FEAR – a state of arousal, tension, or apprehension caused by a specific and identifiable stimulus or situation
2. ANXIETY – a feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or fear that has a vague or unknown source
3. Causes of fear and anxiety
a. Sometimes the source of fear can be easily identified, but not always
b. Anxieties may develop out of proportion to the parent’s behavior
c. Anticipation of punishment can cause anxiety
d. Both fear and anxiety can be increased or created by imagination
4. Historical, cultural and developmental influences
a. Showing fear in western cultures is generally frowned on
b. Navajo culture believes that fear is healthy and normal
c. Fears reflect cognitive development
i. As fears become more abstract the child gains greater cognitive sophistication
ii. Fear of the dark, being alone, and fear of unfamiliar things now appear at earlier ages
5. Coping with fear and anxiety
a. Ignoring fear will not make it go away
b. It is best to gently and sympathetically encourage confrontation of a fear
c. Reducing unnecessary stress is the best way to reduce anxiety
d. DEFENSE MECHANISMS – the psychodynamic tricks that individuals use to disguise or reduce tensions that lead to anxiety
e. RATIONALIZATION – deluding oneself by creating reasonable, but false, explanations for events
B. Emotional regulation
1. The process of dealing with emotions
2. Shame and guilt
a. Shame is viewed as a more painful and intense emotion than guilt
b. Shame reflects negatively on one’s identity and is associated with the desire to undo aspects of the self
c. Guilt involves acknowledging that a behavior performed was wrong, and is associated with wanting to undo these negative behaviors
d. If children do not feel guilt when violating social norms, they are at risk of developing emotional problems
3. Learning to restrain emotions
a. Controlling the negative emotions is not the same as having them; they are an inevitable part of life
b. Learning to control negative feelings, not eliminate them, is the aim of healthy emotional regulation
c. Many cultures emphasize controlling positive emotions as well
4. Sensuality and sexual curiosity
a. Most cultures expect restraint when curiosity about the body develops
b. Sexual exploration is a natural and vital part of development
II. Aggression and Prosocial Behavior
A. Aggression
1. Types of aggression
a. hostile aggression – behavior intended to harm another person
b. instrumental aggression – behavior not intended to hurt another but does so accidentally
c. assertiveness – standing up for one’s rights
2. Punishment and modeling
a. Punishment can create a tendency to behave aggressively
b. Adults who use physical punishment to curb aggression are modeling aggressive behavior
c. The more often children are spanked, the more aggressive they are
3. Television and violence
a. TV viewing has become a powerful influence on children’s development
b. Television programming has become a major socializing force in the U.S.
c. Exposing children to large doses of causal violence on TV teaches them to think of aggression as a commonplace and acceptable way of dealing with frustration and anger
d. Violence is not the only problematic behavior that is modeled on TV
e. Television can also have positive influence on children’s thoughts and actions
f. Positive behaviors can be taught, and positive themes such as cooperation, sharing, friendship, and persistence can be interwoven into programs
B. Prosocial behavior
1. Prosocial behaviors are actions that are intended to benefit others
2. The roots of prosocial behavior
a. Because reward, punishment, and modeling affect aggression, it is natural to assume that they affect helping and sharing behavior
b. Encouraging role playing to help children think about how another person might behave can encourage prosocial behavior
c. Modeling prosocial behavior is a particularly powerful means of encouraging the behavior
III. Developmental Conflicts
A. The challenge for the 2 year old is to develop a sense of autonomy without triggering feelings of shame and doubt
B. Initiative versus guilt
1. INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT – according to Erikson’s theory, 3 to 6 year old children’s primary developmental conflict which focuses on the development of mastery and competence
2. The key to healthy development is to achieve a balance between initiative and guilt
3. Excessive guilt can dampen the child’s initiative
4. Children need to master their environment to feel competent and successful
5. Failure needs to be taken in stride to avoid thinking that failure will generalize to all the things that are attempted
6. A child who fails to develop a secure self concept will have difficulty establishing successful relationships with peers
IV. Peers, Play, and the Development of Social Competence
A. The role of imaginary companions
1. IMAGINARY COMPANIONS – invisible companions that children create and pretend are very real
2. 65% of children have imaginary companions
3. Those who do have been found to be more sociable and less shy
B. Cultural variations in play
1. Since major social roles and values differ from one culture to another, pretending to be certain roles differ by culture
2. Competitive games are virtually nonexistent in some cultures like the former Soviet Union; instead cooperative games are emphasized
3. In cultures where survival depends on motor skills, physical skill games are emphasized
C. Social competence and the development of social skills
1. SOCIAL COMPETENCE – the ability to initiate and maintain satisfying reciprocal relationships with peers
2. Socially competent children are more popular with their peers
3. Four components of social competence
a. Emotional regulation
b. Social knowledge
c. Social skills
d. Social disposition
4. Popular children are more cooperative and interactive and generally display more prosocial behaviors
5. Abused children are more likely to be rejected by their peers
6. Adults can teach social skills through modeling and encouragement, they can support opportunities for successful social experiences, and they can provide opportunities to play with other children
V. Understanding Self and Others
A. Social concepts and rules
1. INTERNALIZATION – the process of incorporating the values and oral standards of one’s society into one’s self concept, or understanding, of oneself
2. Social concepts in friendships
a. When cognitive and social development have progressed to the point where relationships can be built on mutual trust, friendships develop
b. Children demonstrate growing awareness of social concepts when they engage in arguments
c. As children move through early childhood, their understanding of social concepts expands
d. The ability to develop friendships indicates a growing understanding of themselves
B. Self concept
1. Self understanding is linked to the child’s understanding of the social world
2. As children develop, they increasingly define themselves in the context of their relationships with others
3. Self evaluations are often a direct reflection of what other people think of them
4. The early influence of others can have a powerful effect on the development of the basic elements of a person’s self concept
C. Self and gender
1. GENDER IDENTITY – the knowledge of who we are as male or female
2. SEX – the genetic and biological determination of whether we are male or female
3. GENDER – a conceptual understanding of being male or female, which is largely defined by culture
4. GENDER ROLES – roles we adopt that correspond to cultural definitions and expectations about being female or male
5. Male/Female differences during early childhood
a. Males are born slightly longer and heavier
b. Girls have slightly more mature skeletons
c. Girls develop slightly faster than boys
d. Many gender differences in sociability, self esteem, motivation to achieve, or even rote learning do not exist
e. Gender differences identified in early research appear to be shrinking as roles for men and women become more flexible
6. Androgyny
a. The view that all people are capable of developing a wide range of traits
b. ANDROGYNOUS PERSONALITY – personality type that includes characteristics that are both masculine and feminine traits
7. The development of gender identity
a. Children learn to label people as either boys or girls, then they develop definitions of what traits are associated with gender
b. GENDER ROLE STEREOTYPES – rigid and fixed ideas about what is appropriate male or female behavior
c. GENDER SCHEMES – the concepts that define how a person thinks about the behaviors and attitudes that are appropriate for males and females
d. GENDER CONSTANCY – the older child’s understanding that a person’s gender is stable and stays the same despite changes in superficial appearance
e. SELF SOCIALIZATION – process by which children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their gender and culture
VI. Family Dynamics
A. Parenting styles
1. Four parenting styles
a. AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS – parents who combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control; they encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family
b. AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS – parents who are highly controlling, show little warmth, and adhere to rigid rules; in families headed by authoritarian parents, children contribute little to the family’s decision making process
c. PERMISSIVE PARENTS – parents who exercise little control over their children but are high in warmth
d. INDIFFERENT PARENTS – parents who neither set limits nor display much affection or approval
2. Effects of different parenting styles
a. Authoritative parents have been found to fare well in most respects
b. Authoritarian parents tend to produce withdrawn, fearful children who are dependent, moody, unassertive, and irritable
c. Permissive parents produce rebellious, aggressive, self indulgent, impulsive, and socially inept children
d. Indifferent parents produce children who tend to show high expression of destructive impulses as well as delinquent behavior
B. Discipline and self control
1. Setting rules and limits and enforcing them
2. The goal is for children to establish their own self control of behavior and emotions
3. The negotiation of shared goals
a. SHARED GOALS – a common understanding between parents and children about how family interactions will be conducted and what their outcomes will be
b. Families that are unable to achieve shared goals must negotiate everything
C. Sibling dynamics
1. Siblings can be devotedly loyal, despise each other, or form ambivalent love/hate relationships
2. Birth order
a. Few if any important and consistent personality differences result from birth order
b. Any effects on intellectual ability is more likely associated with the role of the first born since this child benefits from all of the parent’s attention
c. Average IQ differences are small
D. Child maltreatment: abuse and neglect
1. CHILD MALTREATMENT – any form of child abuse, child neglect, or other domestic violence that affects the lives of children
2. Physical abuse and neglect
a. Physical abuse often occurs at the hands of the parents
b. Male abusers outnumber females 4 to 1
c. Younger children sustain more serious injuries than older ones
d. Neglect is the failure to provide for the child’s basic needs
e. Neglect is often associated with poverty
f. Can be intentional, but also results from lack of resources or knowledge about appropriate child care
3. Psychological abuse
a. Always accompanies physical abuse
b. Maltreatment damages the parenting relationships that should be nurturing and trustworthy; when this occurs, almost every aspect of psychological development is negatively affected
4. Effects of child abuse
a. All abuse can have long term effects
b. Self esteem can be irreparably damaged
c. Risk of psychological problems increase for adults who were abused as children
d. Children have trouble controlling their emotions and behavior
e. Abused children are not socialized in positive ways and they may learn defiance, manipulation, and other problem behaviors as ways of escaping maltreatment
5. Causes of child maltreatment
a. Parents who abuse their children may have learned abusive behavior from their own parents
b. They may have unrealistic expectations for their children
c. They may be experiencing stress from their life situation
d. They may be socially isolated
e. May have children who pose special challenges
f. Can be addressed through parent education programs that provide social support and teach non-abusive methods of discipline
g. Sometimes children must be removed from their homes to prevent continued abuse
I. Coping with Feelings and Emotions
A. Fear and anxiety
1. FEAR – a state of arousal, tension, or apprehension caused by a specific and identifiable stimulus or situation
2. ANXIETY – a feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or fear that has a vague or unknown source
3. Causes of fear and anxiety
a. Sometimes the source of fear can be easily identified, but not always
b. Anxieties may develop out of proportion to the parent’s behavior
c. Anticipation of punishment can cause anxiety
d. Both fear and anxiety can be increased or created by imagination
4. Historical, cultural and developmental influences
a. Showing fear in western cultures is generally frowned on
b. Navajo culture believes that fear is healthy and normal
c. Fears reflect cognitive development
i. As fears become more abstract the child gains greater cognitive sophistication
ii. Fear of the dark, being alone, and fear of unfamiliar things now appear at earlier ages
5. Coping with fear and anxiety
a. Ignoring fear will not make it go away
b. It is best to gently and sympathetically encourage confrontation of a fear
c. Reducing unnecessary stress is the best way to reduce anxiety
d. DEFENSE MECHANISMS – the psychodynamic tricks that individuals use to disguise or reduce tensions that lead to anxiety
e. RATIONALIZATION – deluding oneself by creating reasonable, but false, explanations for events
B. Emotional regulation
1. The process of dealing with emotions
2. Shame and guilt
a. Shame is viewed as a more painful and intense emotion than guilt
b. Shame reflects negatively on one’s identity and is associated with the desire to undo aspects of the self
c. Guilt involves acknowledging that a behavior performed was wrong, and is associated with wanting to undo these negative behaviors
d. If children do not feel guilt when violating social norms, they are at risk of developing emotional problems
3. Learning to restrain emotions
a. Controlling the negative emotions is not the same as having them; they are an inevitable part of life
b. Learning to control negative feelings, not eliminate them, is the aim of healthy emotional regulation
c. Many cultures emphasize controlling positive emotions as well
4. Sensuality and sexual curiosity
a. Most cultures expect restraint when curiosity about the body develops
b. Sexual exploration is a natural and vital part of development
II. Aggression and Prosocial Behavior
A. Aggression
1. Types of aggression
a. hostile aggression – behavior intended to harm another person
b. instrumental aggression – behavior not intended to hurt another but does so accidentally
c. assertiveness – standing up for one’s rights
2. Punishment and modeling
a. Punishment can create a tendency to behave aggressively
b. Adults who use physical punishment to curb aggression are modeling aggressive behavior
c. The more often children are spanked, the more aggressive they are
3. Television and violence
a. TV viewing has become a powerful influence on children’s development
b. Television programming has become a major socializing force in the U.S.
c. Exposing children to large doses of causal violence on TV teaches them to think of aggression as a commonplace and acceptable way of dealing with frustration and anger
d. Violence is not the only problematic behavior that is modeled on TV
e. Television can also have positive influence on children’s thoughts and actions
f. Positive behaviors can be taught, and positive themes such as cooperation, sharing, friendship, and persistence can be interwoven into programs
B. Prosocial behavior
1. Prosocial behaviors are actions that are intended to benefit others
2. The roots of prosocial behavior
a. Because reward, punishment, and modeling affect aggression, it is natural to assume that they affect helping and sharing behavior
b. Encouraging role playing to help children think about how another person might behave can encourage prosocial behavior
c. Modeling prosocial behavior is a particularly powerful means of encouraging the behavior
III. Developmental Conflicts
A. The challenge for the 2 year old is to develop a sense of autonomy without triggering feelings of shame and doubt
B. Initiative versus guilt
1. INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT – according to Erikson’s theory, 3 to 6 year old children’s primary developmental conflict which focuses on the development of mastery and competence
2. The key to healthy development is to achieve a balance between initiative and guilt
3. Excessive guilt can dampen the child’s initiative
4. Children need to master their environment to feel competent and successful
5. Failure needs to be taken in stride to avoid thinking that failure will generalize to all the things that are attempted
6. A child who fails to develop a secure self concept will have difficulty establishing successful relationships with peers
IV. Peers, Play, and the Development of Social Competence
A. The role of imaginary companions
1. IMAGINARY COMPANIONS – invisible companions that children create and pretend are very real
2. 65% of children have imaginary companions
3. Those who do have been found to be more sociable and less shy
B. Cultural variations in play
1. Since major social roles and values differ from one culture to another, pretending to be certain roles differ by culture
2. Competitive games are virtually nonexistent in some cultures like the former Soviet Union; instead cooperative games are emphasized
3. In cultures where survival depends on motor skills, physical skill games are emphasized
C. Social competence and the development of social skills
1. SOCIAL COMPETENCE – the ability to initiate and maintain satisfying reciprocal relationships with peers
2. Socially competent children are more popular with their peers
3. Four components of social competence
a. Emotional regulation
b. Social knowledge
c. Social skills
d. Social disposition
4. Popular children are more cooperative and interactive and generally display more prosocial behaviors
5. Abused children are more likely to be rejected by their peers
6. Adults can teach social skills through modeling and encouragement, they can support opportunities for successful social experiences, and they can provide opportunities to play with other children
V. Understanding Self and Others
A. Social concepts and rules
1. INTERNALIZATION – the process of incorporating the values and oral standards of one’s society into one’s self concept, or understanding, of oneself
2. Social concepts in friendships
a. When cognitive and social development have progressed to the point where relationships can be built on mutual trust, friendships develop
b. Children demonstrate growing awareness of social concepts when they engage in arguments
c. As children move through early childhood, their understanding of social concepts expands
d. The ability to develop friendships indicates a growing understanding of themselves
B. Self concept
1. Self understanding is linked to the child’s understanding of the social world
2. As children develop, they increasingly define themselves in the context of their relationships with others
3. Self evaluations are often a direct reflection of what other people think of them
4. The early influence of others can have a powerful effect on the development of the basic elements of a person’s self concept
C. Self and gender
1. GENDER IDENTITY – the knowledge of who we are as male or female
2. SEX – the genetic and biological determination of whether we are male or female
3. GENDER – a conceptual understanding of being male or female, which is largely defined by culture
4. GENDER ROLES – roles we adopt that correspond to cultural definitions and expectations about being female or male
5. Male/Female differences during early childhood
a. Males are born slightly longer and heavier
b. Girls have slightly more mature skeletons
c. Girls develop slightly faster than boys
d. Many gender differences in sociability, self esteem, motivation to achieve, or even rote learning do not exist
e. Gender differences identified in early research appear to be shrinking as roles for men and women become more flexible
6. Androgyny
a. The view that all people are capable of developing a wide range of traits
b. ANDROGYNOUS PERSONALITY – personality type that includes characteristics that are both masculine and feminine traits
7. The development of gender identity
a. Children learn to label people as either boys or girls, then they develop definitions of what traits are associated with gender
b. GENDER ROLE STEREOTYPES – rigid and fixed ideas about what is appropriate male or female behavior
c. GENDER SCHEMES – the concepts that define how a person thinks about the behaviors and attitudes that are appropriate for males and females
d. GENDER CONSTANCY – the older child’s understanding that a person’s gender is stable and stays the same despite changes in superficial appearance
e. SELF SOCIALIZATION – process by which children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their gender and culture
VI. Family Dynamics
A. Parenting styles
1. Four parenting styles
a. AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS – parents who combine a high degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control; they encourage communication and negotiation in rule setting within the family
b. AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS – parents who are highly controlling, show little warmth, and adhere to rigid rules; in families headed by authoritarian parents, children contribute little to the family’s decision making process
c. PERMISSIVE PARENTS – parents who exercise little control over their children but are high in warmth
d. INDIFFERENT PARENTS – parents who neither set limits nor display much affection or approval
2. Effects of different parenting styles
a. Authoritative parents have been found to fare well in most respects
b. Authoritarian parents tend to produce withdrawn, fearful children who are dependent, moody, unassertive, and irritable
c. Permissive parents produce rebellious, aggressive, self indulgent, impulsive, and socially inept children
d. Indifferent parents produce children who tend to show high expression of destructive impulses as well as delinquent behavior
B. Discipline and self control
1. Setting rules and limits and enforcing them
2. The goal is for children to establish their own self control of behavior and emotions
3. The negotiation of shared goals
a. SHARED GOALS – a common understanding between parents and children about how family interactions will be conducted and what their outcomes will be
b. Families that are unable to achieve shared goals must negotiate everything
C. Sibling dynamics
1. Siblings can be devotedly loyal, despise each other, or form ambivalent love/hate relationships
2. Birth order
a. Few if any important and consistent personality differences result from birth order
b. Any effects on intellectual ability is more likely associated with the role of the first born since this child benefits from all of the parent’s attention
c. Average IQ differences are small
D. Child maltreatment: abuse and neglect
1. CHILD MALTREATMENT – any form of child abuse, child neglect, or other domestic violence that affects the lives of children
2. Physical abuse and neglect
a. Physical abuse often occurs at the hands of the parents
b. Male abusers outnumber females 4 to 1
c. Younger children sustain more serious injuries than older ones
d. Neglect is the failure to provide for the child’s basic needs
e. Neglect is often associated with poverty
f. Can be intentional, but also results from lack of resources or knowledge about appropriate child care
3. Psychological abuse
a. Always accompanies physical abuse
b. Maltreatment damages the parenting relationships that should be nurturing and trustworthy; when this occurs, almost every aspect of psychological development is negatively affected
4. Effects of child abuse
a. All abuse can have long term effects
b. Self esteem can be irreparably damaged
c. Risk of psychological problems increase for adults who were abused as children
d. Children have trouble controlling their emotions and behavior
e. Abused children are not socialized in positive ways and they may learn defiance, manipulation, and other problem behaviors as ways of escaping maltreatment
5. Causes of child maltreatment
a. Parents who abuse their children may have learned abusive behavior from their own parents
b. They may have unrealistic expectations for their children
c. They may be experiencing stress from their life situation
d. They may be socially isolated
e. May have children who pose special challenges
f. Can be addressed through parent education programs that provide social support and teach non-abusive methods of discipline
g. Sometimes children must be removed from their homes to prevent continued abuse
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outline: Chapter 6
Chapter Six
I. Physical Development
A. Changes in the body
1. Grow almost 3 inches
2. Gain about 4 pounds 8 ounces
3. Ossification – when soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone
4. Body proportions
a. Head no longer takes up ¼ of body
b. Children lose balance due to higher proportion of weight in the upper body
B. Brain development
1. MYELINATION – the formation of the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates neurons in the central nervous system pathways. This sheath increases the speed of transmission and the precision of the nervous system
2. LATERALIZATION – the process where specific skills and competencies become localized in either the left or right cerebral hemisphere
a. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa
b. Language is primarily controlled by the left hemisphere in right handed people
3. Handedness
a. Preference for one hand over the other
b. May have a genetic basis
c. 90% are right handed
d. In left handed people, language is shared by both sides of the brain
4. Brain development and early intervention
a. Since early development sets the stage for later maturation, intervention to remedy problems needs to occur as soon as possible
b. Quality interventions that occur after age 3 still help even though they are implemented after the critical period for brain development
c. Human development: an interactive and individual approach
1. Brain development and other aspects interact with each other
2. Malnutrition can directly produce brain damage
3. A single aspect of development can never be separated from the development of the whole child
II. Motor Skills Development
A. Gross motor skills
1. AUTOMATICITY – the ability to perform motor behaviors without consciously thinking about them
2. FUNCTIONAL SUBORDINATION – the integration of a number of separate simple actions or schemes into a more complex pattern of behavior
B. Fine motor skills
1. Require the coordinated and dexterous use of hand, fingers, and thumb
2. Age 2: children have refined grasping schemes
3. Age 3: children integrate and coordinate these skills with other behaviors
4. Age 4: children can carry on a conversation while manipulating something with their hands
5. They become increasingly competent in taking care of themselves and carrying out their daily activities
C. Learning and motor skills
1. Readiness – acquiring or developing the necessary prerequisite skills to perform an action
2. Practice – repeating a skill in order to perfect it
3. Attention - developing the ability to maintain focus on the skill at hand
4. Competence feedback – gathering information about how well a skill is being performed to refine the skill and ; internalizing pleasure when an action is completed successfully
5. EXTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed to obtain explicit rewards or to avoid explicit adverse events
6. INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed for its own sake, with no particular goal or explicit reward
III. Cognitive Development
A. An overview of preoperational thinking
1. PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD – according to Piaget, the developmental stage associated with early childhood
2. Children explore their surroundings and comprehend new information based on their current level and ways of understanding
3. They can either accommodate or assimilate new information
B. Preoperational substages and thought
1. PRECONCEPTUAL PERIOD – for Piaget, the first part of the preoperational period, which is highlighted by the increasingly complex use of symbols and symbolic play
2. INTUITIVE PERIOD – for Piaget, the second part of the preoperational period, during which children begin to understand causation, as well as to undertake simple mental operations and form a more realistic view of their world
3. EGOCENTRISM – a self centered view of the world where children tend to see things in terms of their personal point of view and fail to take others’ perspectives
4. SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION – the use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts; marks the emergence of the preoperational period
C. Limitations of preoperational thinking
1. Despite development of symbolic representation, children have a long way to go before becoming logical thinkers
2. Limitations include concreteness, irreversibility, egocentrism, centration, and difficulties with concepts of time, space and sequence
D. CONSERVATION – the understanding that changing the shape or appearance of objects does not change their mass, volume, or number
1. Conservation of mass – a child cannot understand that changing the shape of something does not alter its mass
2. Conservation of number – child cannot recognize that number is associated with the actual amount of something and not the space the objects take up
3. Conservation of volume
a. Centration – the child attends to only one dimension, such as height or length
b. Irreversibility – the child cannot reverse steps to change an object back to its previous state
E. Evaluating Piaget’s theory
1. Children’s thinking is not as limited as he described
2. When problems are framed in contexts that are more familiar, they can solve problems using more advanced logic
3. He underemphasized the role of social aspects in learning
F. Beyond Piaget: social perspectives
1. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
2. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT – Vygotsky’s concept that children’s cognitive growth develops through participation in activities slightly beyond their competence with the help of adults or older children
3. SCAFFOLDING – the progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate
G. The role of memory
1. Memory processes
a. Information processing perspective conceptualizes human memory as operating much like a computer
b. Encoding occurs in the working memory
c. Information important enough to be stored is placed in the long term memory
2. Recognition and recall
a. RECOGNITION – the ability to correctly identify objects or situations previously experienced when they appear again
b. RECALL – the ability to retrieve long term information and memories with or without cues or prompts
3. Developing memory strategies
a. Assumed that young children’s difficulties with recall are attributable to poor strategies for encoding and retrieval
b. Children do not spontaneously organize or rehearse information like older children and adults do
c. Studies demonstrate that young children can learn strategies beyond their current repertoire
d. Children remember best when words and tasks are meaningful and embedded in the ongoing settings of activities
4. Memory for scripts
a. Children can repeat series of events in the same order they learned them
b. Only after becoming familiar with the event can they reorder the steps
IV. Language Development
A. Words and concepts
1. Most children can use 1000 words by age 3
2. By age 6 they know about 2600 words and can understand more than 20,000
3. Understanding of concepts is often incomplete
4. They may understand “more” but not understand “less”
B. Expanding grammar
1. It appears that children extract the rules of grammar through an active process of listening to the speech of others
2. Early on children imitate the sentence patterns they hear
3. OVERREGULARIZE – to incorrectly generalize language rules to cases that are exceptions; words typically done by preschool children who are rapidly expanding their vocabularies
C. Mastering the subtleties of speech
1. PRIVATE SPEECH – talking aloud to oneself
a. A means of practicing how words and things they represent are linked
b. Corresponds to the developing thought processes in a child’s mind
2. Public speech and pragmatics
a. COLLECTIVE MONOLOGUES – children’s conversations that include taking turns talking, but not necessarily about the same topic
b. PRAGMATICS – the social and cultural aspects of language use
3. Cross cultural perspective of the pragmatics of speech
a. Pragmatics of speech differ throughout the world
b. U.S. parents focus on satisfying their children’s desires and intentions
c. German mothers focus more on necessity
d. U.S. parents focus more on personal actions
e. U.K. parents focus more on complying with norms
D. The influence of parents’ language use
1. Language teaches children about categories and symbols, how to translate the complexities of the world into ideas and words, and how standards are interpreted and applied
2. These tools are a scaffold used in understanding the world
3. Language and gender
a. Assumptions about gender are embedded into thinking and therefore reflected in language
b. This causes people to talk differently to male and female children
E. Multicultural aspects of language development
1. Bilingualism – learning two languages
2. Children who are bilingual in their earliest years show little confusion between the 2 languages
3. Cognitive demand of learning 2 languages is manageable for most young children
4. Linguistically, culturally, and probably cognitively, it is an advantage to be bilingual
V. Play and Learning
A. Play is thought of as the child’s work
B. It is the unique way of experiencing the world by practicing and improving skills
C. Play and cognitive development
1. Exploring physical objects
a. Allows them to learn the properties and physical laws that govern objects
b. Greater knowledge gives them increasingly higher levels of understanding and competence
c. They learn to compare and classify events and objects
2. Play and egocentrism
a. PARALLEL PLAY – the play engaged in by 2 year olds, which is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing
b. By age 3 or 5 children become less egocentric & are better able to cooperate in play
c. Social maturity is relative; some children advance quicker than others
3. Dramatic play and social knowledge
a. DRAMATIC PLAY – play that develops at about age 3 or 4, that is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing
b. Children are better able to understand another’s perspective
c. They also have a clearer definition of self
d. Allows children to experiment with different roles
e. Promotes social and personality development
4. The role of peers
a. Mixed age peer groups offer older children the opportunity to teach and care for younger children
b. The younger children can imitate and practice role relations with older children
c. Can encourage development of new ways of thinking and problem solving for both the older and younger children
I. Physical Development
A. Changes in the body
1. Grow almost 3 inches
2. Gain about 4 pounds 8 ounces
3. Ossification – when soft tissue or cartilage is transformed into bone
4. Body proportions
a. Head no longer takes up ¼ of body
b. Children lose balance due to higher proportion of weight in the upper body
B. Brain development
1. MYELINATION – the formation of the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates neurons in the central nervous system pathways. This sheath increases the speed of transmission and the precision of the nervous system
2. LATERALIZATION – the process where specific skills and competencies become localized in either the left or right cerebral hemisphere
a. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa
b. Language is primarily controlled by the left hemisphere in right handed people
3. Handedness
a. Preference for one hand over the other
b. May have a genetic basis
c. 90% are right handed
d. In left handed people, language is shared by both sides of the brain
4. Brain development and early intervention
a. Since early development sets the stage for later maturation, intervention to remedy problems needs to occur as soon as possible
b. Quality interventions that occur after age 3 still help even though they are implemented after the critical period for brain development
c. Human development: an interactive and individual approach
1. Brain development and other aspects interact with each other
2. Malnutrition can directly produce brain damage
3. A single aspect of development can never be separated from the development of the whole child
II. Motor Skills Development
A. Gross motor skills
1. AUTOMATICITY – the ability to perform motor behaviors without consciously thinking about them
2. FUNCTIONAL SUBORDINATION – the integration of a number of separate simple actions or schemes into a more complex pattern of behavior
B. Fine motor skills
1. Require the coordinated and dexterous use of hand, fingers, and thumb
2. Age 2: children have refined grasping schemes
3. Age 3: children integrate and coordinate these skills with other behaviors
4. Age 4: children can carry on a conversation while manipulating something with their hands
5. They become increasingly competent in taking care of themselves and carrying out their daily activities
C. Learning and motor skills
1. Readiness – acquiring or developing the necessary prerequisite skills to perform an action
2. Practice – repeating a skill in order to perfect it
3. Attention - developing the ability to maintain focus on the skill at hand
4. Competence feedback – gathering information about how well a skill is being performed to refine the skill and ; internalizing pleasure when an action is completed successfully
5. EXTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed to obtain explicit rewards or to avoid explicit adverse events
6. INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR – behavior performed for its own sake, with no particular goal or explicit reward
III. Cognitive Development
A. An overview of preoperational thinking
1. PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD – according to Piaget, the developmental stage associated with early childhood
2. Children explore their surroundings and comprehend new information based on their current level and ways of understanding
3. They can either accommodate or assimilate new information
B. Preoperational substages and thought
1. PRECONCEPTUAL PERIOD – for Piaget, the first part of the preoperational period, which is highlighted by the increasingly complex use of symbols and symbolic play
2. INTUITIVE PERIOD – for Piaget, the second part of the preoperational period, during which children begin to understand causation, as well as to undertake simple mental operations and form a more realistic view of their world
3. EGOCENTRISM – a self centered view of the world where children tend to see things in terms of their personal point of view and fail to take others’ perspectives
4. SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION – the use of actions, images, words, or other signs to represent past and present events, experiences, and concepts; marks the emergence of the preoperational period
C. Limitations of preoperational thinking
1. Despite development of symbolic representation, children have a long way to go before becoming logical thinkers
2. Limitations include concreteness, irreversibility, egocentrism, centration, and difficulties with concepts of time, space and sequence
D. CONSERVATION – the understanding that changing the shape or appearance of objects does not change their mass, volume, or number
1. Conservation of mass – a child cannot understand that changing the shape of something does not alter its mass
2. Conservation of number – child cannot recognize that number is associated with the actual amount of something and not the space the objects take up
3. Conservation of volume
a. Centration – the child attends to only one dimension, such as height or length
b. Irreversibility – the child cannot reverse steps to change an object back to its previous state
E. Evaluating Piaget’s theory
1. Children’s thinking is not as limited as he described
2. When problems are framed in contexts that are more familiar, they can solve problems using more advanced logic
3. He underemphasized the role of social aspects in learning
F. Beyond Piaget: social perspectives
1. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
2. ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT – Vygotsky’s concept that children’s cognitive growth develops through participation in activities slightly beyond their competence with the help of adults or older children
3. SCAFFOLDING – the progressive structuring of tasks by parents or others so that the level of task difficulty is appropriate
G. The role of memory
1. Memory processes
a. Information processing perspective conceptualizes human memory as operating much like a computer
b. Encoding occurs in the working memory
c. Information important enough to be stored is placed in the long term memory
2. Recognition and recall
a. RECOGNITION – the ability to correctly identify objects or situations previously experienced when they appear again
b. RECALL – the ability to retrieve long term information and memories with or without cues or prompts
3. Developing memory strategies
a. Assumed that young children’s difficulties with recall are attributable to poor strategies for encoding and retrieval
b. Children do not spontaneously organize or rehearse information like older children and adults do
c. Studies demonstrate that young children can learn strategies beyond their current repertoire
d. Children remember best when words and tasks are meaningful and embedded in the ongoing settings of activities
4. Memory for scripts
a. Children can repeat series of events in the same order they learned them
b. Only after becoming familiar with the event can they reorder the steps
IV. Language Development
A. Words and concepts
1. Most children can use 1000 words by age 3
2. By age 6 they know about 2600 words and can understand more than 20,000
3. Understanding of concepts is often incomplete
4. They may understand “more” but not understand “less”
B. Expanding grammar
1. It appears that children extract the rules of grammar through an active process of listening to the speech of others
2. Early on children imitate the sentence patterns they hear
3. OVERREGULARIZE – to incorrectly generalize language rules to cases that are exceptions; words typically done by preschool children who are rapidly expanding their vocabularies
C. Mastering the subtleties of speech
1. PRIVATE SPEECH – talking aloud to oneself
a. A means of practicing how words and things they represent are linked
b. Corresponds to the developing thought processes in a child’s mind
2. Public speech and pragmatics
a. COLLECTIVE MONOLOGUES – children’s conversations that include taking turns talking, but not necessarily about the same topic
b. PRAGMATICS – the social and cultural aspects of language use
3. Cross cultural perspective of the pragmatics of speech
a. Pragmatics of speech differ throughout the world
b. U.S. parents focus on satisfying their children’s desires and intentions
c. German mothers focus more on necessity
d. U.S. parents focus more on personal actions
e. U.K. parents focus more on complying with norms
D. The influence of parents’ language use
1. Language teaches children about categories and symbols, how to translate the complexities of the world into ideas and words, and how standards are interpreted and applied
2. These tools are a scaffold used in understanding the world
3. Language and gender
a. Assumptions about gender are embedded into thinking and therefore reflected in language
b. This causes people to talk differently to male and female children
E. Multicultural aspects of language development
1. Bilingualism – learning two languages
2. Children who are bilingual in their earliest years show little confusion between the 2 languages
3. Cognitive demand of learning 2 languages is manageable for most young children
4. Linguistically, culturally, and probably cognitively, it is an advantage to be bilingual
V. Play and Learning
A. Play is thought of as the child’s work
B. It is the unique way of experiencing the world by practicing and improving skills
C. Play and cognitive development
1. Exploring physical objects
a. Allows them to learn the properties and physical laws that govern objects
b. Greater knowledge gives them increasingly higher levels of understanding and competence
c. They learn to compare and classify events and objects
2. Play and egocentrism
a. PARALLEL PLAY – the play engaged in by 2 year olds, which is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing
b. By age 3 or 5 children become less egocentric & are better able to cooperate in play
c. Social maturity is relative; some children advance quicker than others
3. Dramatic play and social knowledge
a. DRAMATIC PLAY – play that develops at about age 3 or 4, that is characterized by meaningful interactions among children, often including imitation, pretending, and role playing
b. Children are better able to understand another’s perspective
c. They also have a clearer definition of self
d. Allows children to experiment with different roles
e. Promotes social and personality development
4. The role of peers
a. Mixed age peer groups offer older children the opportunity to teach and care for younger children
b. The younger children can imitate and practice role relations with older children
c. Can encourage development of new ways of thinking and problem solving for both the older and younger children
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outline: Chapter 5
Chapter 5
Infants & Toddlers: Personality & Sociocultural Development
Define Terms
Personality- characteristic beliefs, attitudes, and ways of interacting with others
Temperament- “certain behavioral styles” neonates “come into the world with” Three categories: 1.) Easy 2.) Difficult 3.) Slow to warm up
Attachment – “the first relationship”; the relationship between the infant and the mother (or primary care-giver) that is characterized by interdependence, intense mutual feelings, and strong emotional ties. Behaviors that promote nearness to a specific person.
Erickson: Trust vs. mistrust - birth to 1
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt – 1 to 3
Freud: Oral: birth to 12 t0 18 mos.
Anal: from 12 to 18 mos. though about age 3
Greenspans “Milestones in Early Emotional Development”
Birth to 3 mos. – Self-Regulation & interest in world
2 mos. to 7 mos. – Falling in Love
3 to 10 mos. – Intentional Communication
9 to 18 mos. – Organized Sense of Self
18 to 36 mos. – Emotional Ideas
30 to 48 mos. – Emotional Thinking; Fantasy, Reality, Self-Esteem
How important is attachment?
Bowlby & Ainsworth: the interaction & relationship that evolves from the attachment process during the first 2 years are the basis for all future relationships. Parallels Erickson’s theories.
Other research on Attachment:
“Still-face” experiment –
Konrad Lorenz geese – no clear evidence of a “critical period” for human attachment to develop. First few days parents & infants are especially receptive. Some studies say first 45 minutes are important. Attachment must happen by 8 mos. for normal development to continue.
Harlow’s monkeys – contact comfort
“7-months Anxiety” correlate with cognitive development
Stranger Anxiety
Separation Anxiety
Quality of Attachment: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Experiments; 2 basic kinds of attachment:
1. Secure Attachment: 60% to 70% U.S. Middle Class
2.Insecure Attachment: Rest [roughly a third].
-Resistant Attachment – anger, avoidance
-Avoidant Attachment – indifference
-Disorganized/disoriented Attach-confusion, contradictory behavior
All 3 associated with unresponsive, indifferent & resentful care giving
Longitudinal Studies found dramatic differences in personality & social development as early as 18 mos.
Supportive relationship between care-giver and infant promotes active exploration and early mastery of object play & social environment
Responsive Care-Giving: [Ainsworth: strong attachment = highly responsive relationship]
Sensitive to baby’s signals & overall responsiveness
More responsive to cries
More affectionate
More tender
More close bodily contact
Responsive to physical needs
Responsive to distress Signals
Responsive to attempts at communication
Mutuality / interactive synchrony [sin kro nee]
Mutual Dialogues – start off “listening” to one another
Abuse & Neglect
Failure to Thrive
At Risk for physical, emotional & cognitive impairments
Family influences
Fathers
Siblings
Grandparents
PERSONALITY in 2nd YEAR
Trust & Security
Autonomy
Discipline
Toilet training
Pro-social behavior
- Empathy
- Cooperation – almost no 12mo old; infrequent & almost “accidental” at 18 mos.; with coaxing almost all 24 mos.
-Sharing
Sense of Self
Self-concept: perception of personal identity
Self-conscious emotions
-Pride
-Shame
-Guilt
-Embarrassment
Awareness of sex roles around 21 months
Language filled with “me & mine”
Lecture Notes/Chapter Outline: Chapter 4
Chapter 4.
Infancy & Toddlerhood: Physical, Cognitive & Language Development
I. Neonates
o What is a “neonate”?
o How do neonates communicate their needs?
§ Cry
§ yawn
o Level of Awareness: Don’t know much; yet in 2 years are thinking, talking, expressing thoughts & feelings
o Language actually shapes cognitive development & thought processes. It adds structure or a frame of reference for what they are learning and understanding about the world
o What’s happening during the first month?
§ recovery from birth process
§ adjustment of vital functions
§ developing balance between over & under stimulation
§ getting used to the world outside the womb
NEONATE CAPABILITIES
o William James (1842 – 1910) :
o does not use higher brain centers for almost a year; can see only light and shadows, can’t make out objects or patterns
o pretty much accepted until the 1960’s
o Newer research: based on accurate, effective & structured observations:
o Organized & predictable responses
o Complex cognitive activity
o Definite preferences
o Amazing ability to learn
o Make their needs known
STATES OF AROUSAL – a regular, predictable daily cycle - page 160
o Waking activity
o Crying
o Alert activity
o Drowsiness
o Regular sleep
o Irregular sleep
REFLEXES - page 161
o Survival - especially important during first few weeks, before higher brain centers are functioning more fully
o Some are permanent; some disappear or become voluntary
Primitive – function not clear do not seem to have survival or motor development function. May be evolutionary holdover
NEONATAL ASSESSMENT
o What is BNBAS ? – Brazelton’s Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
o Habituation – What is it ?
o Orientation
o Motor tone & activity
o Range of state
o Autonomic stability
o Reflexes
Research methods with neonates & infants
o Habituation Method
o High-amplitude sucking procedure
II. Physical & Motor Development
o Maturation vis-a-vis Socio-cultural environmental influences
o How much is physical & motor development determined by biological growth patterns & how much by environment & learning?
o Gesell’s studies: behaviors followed a predictable, orderly sequence. Conclusion: behavioral milestones are the function of an “internal biological timetable”- maturation.
> Shortcoming of his research: all children in the study came from the same socio-economic class & from the same community & culture
o Newer studies and conclusions - page 165
> West Indians in Jamaca & London
> Guatamala
> Conclusion: physical & motor development not result of maturation alone, but dynamic interaction of maturation and environmental influences.
GROWTH RATES for Height. & Weight. - page 166
GROWTH PERIODS: page 165 –171
1- 4 MONTHS – double weight; first tooth, “baby skin & hair” gone, switch from new-born instincts to higher brain center control, high incidence of SIDS, self-discovery [checking themselves out!]
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME: SIDS or crib death
o Child dies without warning while sleeping – 28% of all infant deaths in 1998, was even higher in the 80’s
o Not one single cause – most likely a cluster of related or even separate causes
o Research does show that infants put to sleep on their stomachs [prone position] are at much greater risk of SIDS
5 –8 MONTHS – gradual weight gain, no major change in general appearance, legs straighten out so soles of feet aren’t facing one another;
visually-guided reach, refinement of gross motor skills, sits up & maybe walks with support, THEY ARE MOBILE: crawling, creeping, scooting, bear walking, CHILD-PROOFING NECESSARY!, Why child-proof rather than “teach not to touch”? begins playing social games.
9 –12 MONTHS – 12 mo. about 3X birth weight, about ½ standing alone & taking first steps [remember; highly cultural], starting to see the world from a standing position. PINCER GRASP, playing social games, feeding self, drinking from a cup, beginning independent self-care.
13 –18 MONTHS – 18 mo. old is 4X his/her weight at birth, but the rate of increase has slowed. Most all are walking, may have difficulty with stairs. Tough time peddling a trike or kicking a ball, they can stack blocks, scribble with crayons, feed themselves, maybe undress themselves. IMATATION IS BIG ! (sweeping, using phone [Caden}, reading, etc.)
19 – 24 MONTHS – weight gain continues to taper off, pedal, jump, balance on one foot, manipulate things , dress & undress with a little help, fascinated with drawing , matches shapes, symmetry very complex ,
dynamic process.
IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION pages 171 &172
o Some statistics
§ 20% -24% of U. S. low-income families in study had infants suffering from iron-deficiency anemia
§ UNICF estimates that 30% of children under age 5 in developing countries have moderate to severe stunting from malnutrition
§ Serious deficiencies during first 30 months result in negative effects that are generally irreversible
> delays in maturation & learning
> permanently stunted
> deficits in brain size, attention & information processing
o Two types of Malnutrition
1.) inadequate amount of total food - marasmus
2.) inadequate amount essential vitamins and minerals –kwashiorkor
BREAST vs. BOTTLE
o How long should a mother nurse her infant?
o Weaning & solid food
III. Sensory & Perceptual Development [page 175]
How developed are a neonate’s senses? What can they see? What can hear? Feel?
All the senses are developed & working at birth. They experience “Sensations”
Sensations:
Perceptions:
Cognitive Development
Infancy & Toddlerhood: Physical, Cognitive & Language Development
I. Neonates
o What is a “neonate”?
o How do neonates communicate their needs?
§ Cry
§ yawn
o Level of Awareness: Don’t know much; yet in 2 years are thinking, talking, expressing thoughts & feelings
o Language actually shapes cognitive development & thought processes. It adds structure or a frame of reference for what they are learning and understanding about the world
o What’s happening during the first month?
§ recovery from birth process
§ adjustment of vital functions
§ developing balance between over & under stimulation
§ getting used to the world outside the womb
NEONATE CAPABILITIES
o William James (1842 – 1910) :
o does not use higher brain centers for almost a year; can see only light and shadows, can’t make out objects or patterns
o pretty much accepted until the 1960’s
o Newer research: based on accurate, effective & structured observations:
o Organized & predictable responses
o Complex cognitive activity
o Definite preferences
o Amazing ability to learn
o Make their needs known
STATES OF AROUSAL – a regular, predictable daily cycle - page 160
o Waking activity
o Crying
o Alert activity
o Drowsiness
o Regular sleep
o Irregular sleep
REFLEXES - page 161
o Survival - especially important during first few weeks, before higher brain centers are functioning more fully
o Some are permanent; some disappear or become voluntary
Primitive – function not clear do not seem to have survival or motor development function. May be evolutionary holdover
NEONATAL ASSESSMENT
o What is BNBAS ? – Brazelton’s Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
o Habituation – What is it ?
o Orientation
o Motor tone & activity
o Range of state
o Autonomic stability
o Reflexes
Research methods with neonates & infants
o Habituation Method
o High-amplitude sucking procedure
II. Physical & Motor Development
o Maturation vis-a-vis Socio-cultural environmental influences
o How much is physical & motor development determined by biological growth patterns & how much by environment & learning?
o Gesell’s studies: behaviors followed a predictable, orderly sequence. Conclusion: behavioral milestones are the function of an “internal biological timetable”- maturation.
> Shortcoming of his research: all children in the study came from the same socio-economic class & from the same community & culture
o Newer studies and conclusions - page 165
> West Indians in Jamaca & London
> Guatamala
> Conclusion: physical & motor development not result of maturation alone, but dynamic interaction of maturation and environmental influences.
GROWTH RATES for Height. & Weight. - page 166
GROWTH PERIODS: page 165 –171
1- 4 MONTHS – double weight; first tooth, “baby skin & hair” gone, switch from new-born instincts to higher brain center control, high incidence of SIDS, self-discovery [checking themselves out!]
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME: SIDS or crib death
o Child dies without warning while sleeping – 28% of all infant deaths in 1998, was even higher in the 80’s
o Not one single cause – most likely a cluster of related or even separate causes
o Research does show that infants put to sleep on their stomachs [prone position] are at much greater risk of SIDS
5 –8 MONTHS – gradual weight gain, no major change in general appearance, legs straighten out so soles of feet aren’t facing one another;
visually-guided reach, refinement of gross motor skills, sits up & maybe walks with support, THEY ARE MOBILE: crawling, creeping, scooting, bear walking, CHILD-PROOFING NECESSARY!, Why child-proof rather than “teach not to touch”? begins playing social games.
9 –12 MONTHS – 12 mo. about 3X birth weight, about ½ standing alone & taking first steps [remember; highly cultural], starting to see the world from a standing position. PINCER GRASP, playing social games, feeding self, drinking from a cup, beginning independent self-care.
13 –18 MONTHS – 18 mo. old is 4X his/her weight at birth, but the rate of increase has slowed. Most all are walking, may have difficulty with stairs. Tough time peddling a trike or kicking a ball, they can stack blocks, scribble with crayons, feed themselves, maybe undress themselves. IMATATION IS BIG ! (sweeping, using phone [Caden}, reading, etc.)
19 – 24 MONTHS – weight gain continues to taper off, pedal, jump, balance on one foot, manipulate things , dress & undress with a little help, fascinated with drawing , matches shapes, symmetry very complex ,
dynamic process.
IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION pages 171 &172
o Some statistics
§ 20% -24% of U. S. low-income families in study had infants suffering from iron-deficiency anemia
§ UNICF estimates that 30% of children under age 5 in developing countries have moderate to severe stunting from malnutrition
§ Serious deficiencies during first 30 months result in negative effects that are generally irreversible
> delays in maturation & learning
> permanently stunted
> deficits in brain size, attention & information processing
o Two types of Malnutrition
1.) inadequate amount of total food - marasmus
2.) inadequate amount essential vitamins and minerals –kwashiorkor
BREAST vs. BOTTLE
o How long should a mother nurse her infant?
o Weaning & solid food
III. Sensory & Perceptual Development [page 175]
How developed are a neonate’s senses? What can they see? What can hear? Feel?
All the senses are developed & working at birth. They experience “Sensations”
Sensations:
Perceptions:
Cognitive Development
Tuesday, May 26, 2009
Schedule of Classes
Proposed Schedule of Classes
Summer 2009
May
Tues. 5/19 - Overview of class; Introduction to Human Development: Chapter 1
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 1,2
Thurs. 5/21 - Chapter 2: Heredity & Environment [note: 5/22 last day to withdraw with no grade]
Tues. 5/26 - Test 1 [Chapters 1 & 2]; Chapter 3: Prenatal Development & Childbirth
o Video: The Intimate Universe
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 3
Thurs. 5/28 - Chapter 3: Prenatal Development & Childbirth
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 4
June
Tues. 6/2 – Infancy & Toddlerhood: Chapters 4
o Video: The Intimate Universe
o Reading Assignment: Chapter 5
Thurs. 6/4 – Infancy & Toddlerhood: Chapters 5
Tues. 6/9 - Test 2 [Chapters 3, 4, & 5]; Early Childhood: Chapter 6
o Video: The Intimate Universe
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 6 & 7
Thurs. 6/11 – Early Childhood: Chapter 7
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 8 & 9
Tues. 6/16 – Middle Childhood: Chapters 8 & 9
Thurs. 6/18 - Test 3 [Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9]; Adolescence: Chapter 10
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 10 & 11
Tues. 6/23 - Adolescence: Chapter 11; Young Adulthood: Chapters 12
o [note: last day to withdraw with grade of “W”]
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 12 & 13
Thurs. 6/25- Young Adulthood: Chapters 12 & 13;
Tues. 6/30 - Test 4 [Chapters 10, 11, 12, 13]; Middle Adulthood: Chapters 14 & 15
July
Thurs. 7/2 - Older Adulthood; Chapters 16 & 17
Tues. 7/7 - Death & Dying: Chapter 18
Thurs. 7/9 - Test 5 - Final [Chapters 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]
Summer 2009
May
Tues. 5/19 - Overview of class; Introduction to Human Development: Chapter 1
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 1,2
Thurs. 5/21 - Chapter 2: Heredity & Environment [note: 5/22 last day to withdraw with no grade]
Tues. 5/26 - Test 1 [Chapters 1 & 2]; Chapter 3: Prenatal Development & Childbirth
o Video: The Intimate Universe
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 3
Thurs. 5/28 - Chapter 3: Prenatal Development & Childbirth
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 4
June
Tues. 6/2 – Infancy & Toddlerhood: Chapters 4
o Video: The Intimate Universe
o Reading Assignment: Chapter 5
Thurs. 6/4 – Infancy & Toddlerhood: Chapters 5
Tues. 6/9 - Test 2 [Chapters 3, 4, & 5]; Early Childhood: Chapter 6
o Video: The Intimate Universe
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 6 & 7
Thurs. 6/11 – Early Childhood: Chapter 7
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 8 & 9
Tues. 6/16 – Middle Childhood: Chapters 8 & 9
Thurs. 6/18 - Test 3 [Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9]; Adolescence: Chapter 10
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 10 & 11
Tues. 6/23 - Adolescence: Chapter 11; Young Adulthood: Chapters 12
o [note: last day to withdraw with grade of “W”]
o Reading Assignment: Chapters 12 & 13
Thurs. 6/25- Young Adulthood: Chapters 12 & 13;
Tues. 6/30 - Test 4 [Chapters 10, 11, 12, 13]; Middle Adulthood: Chapters 14 & 15
July
Thurs. 7/2 - Older Adulthood; Chapters 16 & 17
Tues. 7/7 - Death & Dying: Chapter 18
Thurs. 7/9 - Test 5 - Final [Chapters 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]
NOTES: Chapter 3 - Prenatal Development & Childbirth
Chapter 3 - Prenatal Development & Childbirth
Ø Development of Parents is also a factor
Ø 50% of all pregnancies are unintended
§ often met with trepidation, anxiety, fear, mixed emotions
§ often disruptive in terms of job, career, stage of relationship
Ø Process is “biologically programmed sequence of events leading to the birth of a baby” [focus on what goes right]
Ø Many don’t make it, however:
§ 50 to 70% of fertilized eggs [one-celled zygotes] die within the first 2 weeks
§ of those that do survive, 25% will miscarry, spontaneously abort, before birth
Ø Periods & Trimesters; terms not used consistently
§ Book: “Trimesters simply break the 9 months of the mother’s pregnancy into three 3-month segments.” Each about 13 weeks.
· Health care pros.: calculate “weeks of pregnancy” from first day of last period; usually about 2 weeks before conception.
§ “periods are more specific than trimesters and reflect developmental mile stones
· Germinal period; Embryonic period; Fetal period
Ø Ova generally mature one at a time, although a woman is born with all of the ova will ever have. Men produce about 1 billion sperm cells every day, depositing approximately 300 million with each ejaculation.
Ø Generally only one will fertilize an ovum. Exception: dizygotic twins or multiples. Estimated that 80% of multiple births from 1996 & 1997 were result of fertility interventions.
Ø A mature ovum can survive for 3 -5 days. Sperm can live 2 -3 days in the vagina. This provides a period of about a week that conception can occur.
Ø Germinal Period: fertilization to implantation - about 2 wks.
§ Zygote splits 3X, one cell becomes 8; forms a “blastula” in about a week
§ Blastula – fluid-filled sphere of undifferentiated cells
§ Differentiation – cells separate according to function: those that will become new human & those that develop into support structures [placenta, etc.]
§ Support structures support secrete hormone [hcg, human chorionic gonadotopin] which shuts down ovulation & menstrual periods]
§ Implantation – blastula burrows into uterus wall
Ø Embryonic Period – lasts about 6 weeks. Begins when implantation is complete
§ Two simultaneous process occur:
(1) Outer layer of cells begin producing all the tissue for support structures [amniotic fluid & sac, umbilical cord, placenta]
(2) Inner cells become embryo itself
§ Embryo develops legs, arms, fingers, toes, face, a beating heart, brain lungs & all other major organs.
§ By end of this period embryo is recognizably human
§ By end of 2nd trimester embryo/fetus reaches “the age of viability” & has a 50/50 chance of survival outside the womb
Ø Fetal Period – lasts from start of 3rd month to birth – about 7 months
Ø Development of Parents is also a factor
Ø 50% of all pregnancies are unintended
§ often met with trepidation, anxiety, fear, mixed emotions
§ often disruptive in terms of job, career, stage of relationship
Ø Process is “biologically programmed sequence of events leading to the birth of a baby” [focus on what goes right]
Ø Many don’t make it, however:
§ 50 to 70% of fertilized eggs [one-celled zygotes] die within the first 2 weeks
§ of those that do survive, 25% will miscarry, spontaneously abort, before birth
Ø Periods & Trimesters; terms not used consistently
§ Book: “Trimesters simply break the 9 months of the mother’s pregnancy into three 3-month segments.” Each about 13 weeks.
· Health care pros.: calculate “weeks of pregnancy” from first day of last period; usually about 2 weeks before conception.
§ “periods are more specific than trimesters and reflect developmental mile stones
· Germinal period; Embryonic period; Fetal period
Ø Ova generally mature one at a time, although a woman is born with all of the ova will ever have. Men produce about 1 billion sperm cells every day, depositing approximately 300 million with each ejaculation.
Ø Generally only one will fertilize an ovum. Exception: dizygotic twins or multiples. Estimated that 80% of multiple births from 1996 & 1997 were result of fertility interventions.
Ø A mature ovum can survive for 3 -5 days. Sperm can live 2 -3 days in the vagina. This provides a period of about a week that conception can occur.
Ø Germinal Period: fertilization to implantation - about 2 wks.
§ Zygote splits 3X, one cell becomes 8; forms a “blastula” in about a week
§ Blastula – fluid-filled sphere of undifferentiated cells
§ Differentiation – cells separate according to function: those that will become new human & those that develop into support structures [placenta, etc.]
§ Support structures support secrete hormone [hcg, human chorionic gonadotopin] which shuts down ovulation & menstrual periods]
§ Implantation – blastula burrows into uterus wall
Ø Embryonic Period – lasts about 6 weeks. Begins when implantation is complete
§ Two simultaneous process occur:
(1) Outer layer of cells begin producing all the tissue for support structures [amniotic fluid & sac, umbilical cord, placenta]
(2) Inner cells become embryo itself
§ Embryo develops legs, arms, fingers, toes, face, a beating heart, brain lungs & all other major organs.
§ By end of this period embryo is recognizably human
§ By end of 2nd trimester embryo/fetus reaches “the age of viability” & has a 50/50 chance of survival outside the womb
Ø Fetal Period – lasts from start of 3rd month to birth – about 7 months
Ø Summary
o 1st trimester – Basic structures are beginning to be formed
o 2nd trimester – organs mature, especially the brain
o 3rd trimester – major maturation of brain & “rehersal” or “trial run” of organs & systems
Ø Developmental Trends or Growth Patterns
o Cephalocudal [SI-FOE-LO-CODL] – head down; top to bottom
o Proximodistal [PROX-A-MO-DIS-TAL] – near to far; middle of body out
o Gross to specific - with generalized, whole body movements at first, with these responses becoming more local and specific later
Prenatal Environmental influences
Ø Maternal age
o Older mothers are at greater risk for miscarriage
o Teenage mothers have increased risk since their bodies may not be able to sustain a healthy developing child
o Older women have older ova that could be defective
Ø Maternal health & nutrition
o Malnutrition during pregnancy can cause babies with low birth weight, smaller head size, and smaller overall size
o Reduced brain development can occur
o Temporary malnutrition usually has no long lasting effects
Ø Prenatal health care
o 5 or more visits to a doctor is one of the best predictors of delivering healthy babies
o Health care has been shown to be effective in reducing infant mortality and premature birth rates
Ø Critical periods the period of development during which the effect of a teratogen occurs
Ø TERATOGEN – toxic agent of any kind that potentially causes abnormalities in the developing child
o Teratogens and their effects
§ Maternal diseases
· Among the most devastating teratogens
· Diseases that are contracted by the mother and are passed along to the developing embryo or fetus
· Because the placenta keeps the mother’s and baby’s blood supplies separate, it can screen some larger disease molecules and keep them from being passed from mother to baby
· HIV is transmitted by infected mothers about 25% of the time; if treated this can be reduced to 5%
§ Prescription and over the counter drugs
· Sometimes a drug can be harmless to the mother but dangerous to the baby
· The drug may arrest or interfere with developing organ systems, but not have an affect after development is complete
§ Alcohol
· FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME – a set of congenital abnormalities, including small size, low birth weight, certain facial characteristics, and possible mental retardation that result from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy
· FETAL ALCOHOL EFFECTS – similar to FAS, although with milder abnormalities; due to drinking alcohol during pregnancy
§ Tobacco
· Spontaneous abortion, still birth, and premature birth are significantly more likely if the mother smokes
· Damage to the placenta caused by smoking interferes with nutrient transmission
· ANOXIA – lack of oxygen; can cause brain damage
§ Marijuana
· May affect central nervous system
· May later damage the neurological and cognitive control
§ Cocaine and other amphetamine drugs
· Infants have a higher risk of prematurity, growth retardation, mental retardation, and neuromotor dysfunction
· Discontinuing cocaine use can limit the damage
Childbirth Stages
Ø initial labor - the first stage of labor, during which the cervical opening of the uterus begins to dilate to allow for passage of the baby [cervix: 0-3 cm. dilation]
o false labor/Braxton-Hicks contractions; generally diminish if the mother walks
o Average initial labor for first born is 12 -15 hours; 6 – 8 for subsequent children; Can be anywhere from 15 minutes - 30 hours
o contractions 15 -20 min. progressing to 3 - 5 min
o release of mucus plug sealing the cervix; “bloody show” or “showing”
o “water breaks” – amniotic sac ruptures & fluid is released [gushes]
Ø 2nd stage [again: terms used inconsistently] Active Phase [cervix: 4 - 7 cm.]
o stronger, longer, more regular contractions – every 2 to 3 minutes
Ø Transition stage- briefest stage [cervix: 8 -10 cm. dilation]
o Longer and more intense contractions; Contractions last 1 to 2 minutes with only ½ to 1½ minutes “rest”
o Very intense
o Lasts 10 to 60 minutes
o The head emerges from the birth canal
o EPISIOTOMY – an incision to enlarge the vaginal opening: done less often in Europe than U.S.
Ø AFTERBIRTH – the third and last stage of childbirth, typically occurs within 20 minutes after delivery during which the placenta and the umbilical cord are expelled from the uterus
o Approaches to childbirth
§ The changing views of childbirth
· MIDWIFE – a woman who is experienced in childbirth, with or without training, who assists with home delivery
· TRADITIONAL CHILDBIRTH – hospital labor and delivery
§ Contemporary childbirth practices
· NATURAL OR PREPARED CHILDBIRTH – childbirth based on procedures developed by Fernand Lamaze, a French obstetrician
· BIRTHING CENTER – place designed to accommodate the entire birth process, from labor through delivery and recovery
o Advances in technology
§ Prenatal screening
· ULTRASOUND – a technique that uses sound waves to produce a picture of the fetus in the uterus
· AMNIOCENTESIS – the withdrawal and analysis of amniotic fluid with a syringe to obtain discarded fetal cells for testing
· CHORIONOIC VILLUS SAMPLING – the withdrawal and analysis of cells from the membranes that surround the fetus, either with a syringe or with a catheter. Because more cells are collected in this procedure than in amniocentesis, the test can be completed more quickly
§ High technology for high risk pregnancies
· FETAL MONITOR – the external monitor records the intensity of uterine contractions and the baby’s heartbeat by means of two belts placed around the mother’s abdomen. The internal monitor consists of a plastic tube containing electrodes that is inserted through the vagina and attached to the baby’s head
· External monitors record the intensity of uterine contractions and the baby’s heartbeat by means of two belts placed around the mother’s abdomen
· Internal monitoring is more invasive that records directly by placing tubes containing electrodes into the vagina and on the baby’s head
o Complications in childbirth
§ BREECH PRESENTATION – the baby’s position in the uterus where the head will emerge last; assistance is sometimes needed in such cases to prevent injury to the infant, including anoxia
§ CESAREAN SECTION – surgical procedure used to remove the baby and the placenta from the uterus by cutting through the abdominal wall
§ APGAR SCORING SYSTEM – a standard scoring system that allows physicians to evaluate an infant’s condition quickly and objectively
§ Premature birth
· PRETERM STATUS – an infant born before a gestation period of 35 weeks
· SMALL FOR DATE – a full term newborn who weighs less than five pounds, eight ounces
Ø The evolving family
o The transition to parenthood
§ Adjustments for the mother
· May feel nauseated, experience fullness or tingling in her breasts
· May be fatigued and emotionally hypersenstive
· Physical discomfort and emotional burden
· Uncertainty about the future
· Wonder whether or not they will be able to fulfill the expectations of everyone who will need them
§ The fathers changing role
· Some may feel left out while others feel excited and prideful
· Expectant father may also go though some of the symptoms of their wife’s pregnancy
o The arrival of the neonate
§ NEONATE – baby in the first month of life
§ The trauma of being born
· Normal full term babies are well prepared to cope with the stressful time
· First breaths may be difficult because of amniotic fluid in the lungs
§ Size and appearance
· FONTANELS – the soft bony plates of skull connected by cartilage
· External genitalia may appear enlarged due to presence of hormones
· Vernix caseosa may be present
· Weighs between 5 pounds 8 ounces and 9 pounds 8 ounces
· Between 19 and 22 inches long
§ The first few days: a period of adjustment
· Significant adjustments in respiration, blood circulation, digestion, and temperature regulation
· Digestion changes radically
· Breathing can cause coughing and sneezing to clear the mucus and amniotic fluid from the lungs
· Reflexes
o SURVIVAL REFLEXES – biologically programmed behaviors, such as breathing, rooting, and sucking, that are related to the neonate’s ability to survive
o PRIMITIVE REFLEXES – biologically programmed behaviors without immediate survival value, but which may have been associated with survival in our evolutionary past
§ The beginning of attachment
· ATTACHMENT – the reciprocal emotional bond that develops between a child and caregivers
· Attachment is reciprocal
· Establishes the foundation for later social and personality development
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